Terms & Conditions
» 1. Introduction
» 2. Information on the Website
» 3. Trade Marks
» 4. External Links
» 5. Public forums and User Submissions
» 6. Specific Use
» 7. Warranties
» 8. Disclaimers
» 9. Use of the Website
» 10. General
1. Introduction
Affiliate Junktion™, including subsidiaries and affiliates ("Website" or "Website Owner" or "we" or "us" or "our") provides the information contained on this website or any of the pages comprising the website ("website") to visitors ("visitors") (cumulatively referred to as "you" or "your" hereinafter) subject to the terms and conditions set out in these website terms and conditions, the Privacy Policy and any other relevant terms and conditions, policies and notices which may be applicable to a specific section or module of this website.
2. Information on the Website
Whilst every effort is made to update the information contained on this website, neither Affiliate Junktion nor any third party or data or content provider make any representations or warranties, whether express, implied in law or residual, as to the sequence, accuracy, completeness or reliability of information, opinions, any share price information, research information, data and/or content contained on the website (including but not limited to any information which may be provided by any third party or data or content providers) ("information") and shall not be bound in any manner by any information contained on the website. Affiliate Junktion reserves the right at any time to change or discontinue without notice, any aspect or feature of this website. No information shall be construed as advice and information is offered for information purposes only and is not intended for trading purposes. You and your company rely on the information contained on this website at your own risk. If you find an error or omission at this site, please let us know.
3. Trade Marks
The trade marks, names, logos and service marks (collectively "trade marks") displayed on this website are registered and unregistered trade marks of Affiliate Junktion. Nothing contained on this website should be construed as granting any licence or right to use any trade mark without the prior written permission of Affiliate Junktion.
4. External Links
External links may be provided for your convenience, but they are beyond the control of Affiliate Junktion and no representation is made as to their content. Use or reliance on any external links and the content thereon provided is at your own risk. When visiting external links you must refer to that external websites terms and conditions of use. No hypertext links shall be created from any website controlled by you or otherwise to this website without the express prior written permission of Affiliate Junktion. Please contact us if you would like to link to this website or would like to request a link to your website.
5. Public Forums and User Submissions
Affiliate Junktion is not responsible for any material submitted to the public areas by you (which include bulletin boards, hosted pages, chat rooms, or any other public area found on the website. Any material (whether submitted by you or any other user) is not endorsed, reviewed or approved by Affiliate Junktion. Affiliate Junktion reserves the right to remove any material submitted or posted by you in the public areas, without notice to you, if it becomes aware and determines, in its sole and absolute discretion that you are or there is the likelihood that you may, including but not limited to -
5.1 defame, abuse, harass, stalk, threaten or otherwise violate the rights of other users or any third parties;
5.2 publish, post, distribute or disseminate any defamatory, obscene, indecent or unlawful material or information;
5.3 post or upload files that contain viruses, corrupted files or any other similar software or programs that may damage the operation of Affiliate Junktion's and/or a third party's computer system and/or network;
5.4 violate any copyright, trade mark, other applicable New Zealand or international laws or intellectual property rights of Affiliate Junktion or any other third party;
5.5 submit contents containing marketing or promotional material which is intended to solicit business.
6. Specific Use
You further agree not to use the website to send or post any message or material that is unlawful, harassing, defamatory, abusive, indecent, threatening, harmful, vulgar, obscene, sexually orientated, racially offensive, profane, pornographic or violates any applicable law whether in New Zealand or elsewhere and you hereby indemnify Affiliate Junktion against any loss, liability, damage or expense of whatever nature which Affiliate Junktion or any third party may suffer which is caused by or attributable to, whether directly or indirectly, your use of the website to send or post any such message or material.
7.1 Warranties
Affiliate Junktion™ will provide you with ongoing support & guidance to assist you in being able to earn money online within 48 hours. To be able to earn within 48 hours you are required to actively participate to our program (2-4 hours per week) and follow the guidance and instructions of our dedicated online Support Department.
Our Support Team can be accessed, free of charge, at any time through our Support Center.
Once your free Affiliate Junktion Website will become viewable online, you will be able to start earning through our performance based affiliate program immediately.
8. Disclaimers
Affiliate Junktion shall not be responsible for and disclaims all liability for any loss, liability, damage (whether direct, indirect or consequential), personal injury or expense of any nature whatsoever which may be suffered by you or any third party (including your company), as a result of or which may be attributable, directly or indirectly, to your access and use of the website, any information contained on the website, your or your company's personal information or material and information transmitted over our system. In particular, neither Affiliate Junktion nor any third party or data or content provider shall be liable in any way to you or to any other person, firm or corporation whatsoever for any loss, liability, damage (whether direct or consequential), personal injury or expense of any nature whatsoever arising from any delays, inaccuracies, errors in, or omission of any share price information or the transmission thereof, or for any actions taken in reliance thereon or occasioned thereby or by reason of non-performance or interruption, or termination thereof.
Affiliate Junktion makes no warranties, representations, statements or guarantees (whether express, implied in law or residual) regarding the website, the information contained on the website, your or your company's personal information or material and information transmitted over our system. In addition, we make no representation that the operation of our website will be uninterrupted or error-free, and we will not be liable for the consequences of any interruptions or errors.
9. Use of the Website.
Affiliate Junktion does not make any warranty or representation that information on the website is appropriate for use in any jurisdiction (other than New Zealand ). By accessing the website, you warrant and represent to Affiliate Junktion that you are legally entitled to do so and to make use of information made available via the website.
10. General
10.1 Entire Agreement.
These website terms and conditions should be read in conjunction with the Privacy Policy and Disclaimer and the three documents shall constitute the sole record of the agreement between you and Affiliate Junktion.com in relation to your use of the website. Neither you nor Affiliate Junktion shall be bound by any express tacit or implied representation, warranty, promise or the like, not recorded herein. Unless otherwise specifically stated these website terms and conditions, the Privacy Policy and the Disclaimer supersede and replace all prior committments, undertakings or representations, whether written or oral, between you and Affiliate Junktion in respect of your use of the website.
10.2 Alteration
Affiliate Junktion may at any time modify any relevant terms and conditions, policies or notices. You acknowledge that by visiting the website from time to time, you shall become bound to the current version of the relevant terms and conditions (the "current version") and, unless stated in the current version, all previous versions shall be superseded by the current version. You shall be responsible for reviewing the then current version each time you visit the website.
10.3 Conflict.
Where any conflict or contradiction appears between the provisions of these website terms and conditions and any other relevant terms and conditions, policies or notices, the other relevant terms and conditions, policies or notices which relate specifically to a particular section or module of the website shall prevail in respect of your use of the relevant section or module of the website.
10.4 Waiver.
No indulgence or extension of time which either you or Affiliate Junktion may grant to the other will constitute a waiver of or, whether by stopple or otherwise, limit any of the existing or future rights of the grantor in terms hereof, save in the event or to the extent that the grantor has signed a written document expressly waiving or limiting such rights.
10.5 Cession.
Affiliate Junktion shall be entitled to cede, assign and delegate all or any of its rights and obligations in terms of any relevant terms and conditions, policies and notices to any third party.
10.6 Severability.
All provisions of any relevant terms and conditions, policies and notices are, notwithstanding the manner in which they have been grouped together or linked grammatically, sever able from each other. Any provision of any relevant terms and conditions, policies and notices, which is or becomes unenforceable in any jurisdiction, whether due to void ness, invalidity, illegality, unlawfulness or for any reason whatever, shall, in such jurisdiction only and only to the extent that it is so unenforceable, be treated as pro non scripto and the remaining provisions of any relevant terms and conditions, policies and notices shall remain in full force and effect.
10.7 Applicable laws.
Any relevant terms and conditions, policies and notices shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of New Zealand without giving effect to any principles of conflict of law. You hereby consent to the exclusive jurisdiction of the High Court of New Zealand in respect of any disputes arising in connection with the website, or any relevant terms and conditions, policies and notices or any matter related to or in connection therewith.
10.8 Comments or Questions.
If you have any questions, comments or concerns arising from the website, the Privacy Policy or any other relevant terms and conditions, policies and notices or the way in which we are handling your personal information please contact us.
2008年11月23日日曜日
レンタルサーバー BIG-server.com 簡単・はやい・大容量 初回月額料金 \7,350 x 3ヶ月分 = \22,050
この概要は表示できません。投稿を閲覧するには
ここをクリック してください。
2008年11月12日水曜日
認定証明書が交付された方は上記料金の全納をお願いします 申請手数料20,000円
2）授業料1年分（4学期分）
【2007年10月1日以降】 （消費税込み）
入学金 授業料（1年分） 共済会費 合計
初回 2回目以降
一括納入 50,000円 680,000円 無 10,000円 740,000円
780,000円
分割納入 50,000円 360,000円 2回目
180,000円
10,000円
3回目
180,000円
※認定証明書が交付された方は上記料金の全納をお願いします。
※コースの途中で退学する場合は授業を受けなかった学期単位で授業料をご返金いたします。
※入国後、必ず国民健康保険にご加入ください。医療費自己負担額が3割になります。
※留学共済会は、3割の医療費自己負担額を補償する制度です。
※国民健康保険加入が共済摘要の絶対条件となります。
※料金は全て税込み表示です。
入学申込み手順
STEP.1
入学相談～審査
まずはお問い合わせください。
▼
STEP.2
当校受付け審査終了～申請書類受理、入国管理局に提出
（要：申請手数料20,000円）
▼
STEP.3
結果通知（在留資格認定証明書交付）
交付結果発表（東京入国管理局）～学校より結果通知。入学およびビザ取得に必要な書類一式を送付します。
▼
STEP.4
レベルチェックテスト
▼
STEP.5
在外公館でビザ申請
▼
STEP.6
日本入国
授業開始1週間前を目安に入国して下さい。
▼
STEP.7
オリエンテーション
授業開始前日に行います。
▼
STEP.8
授業開始
いよいよ授業が始まります。日本語の勉強を楽しんでください。
入学相談申し込み前に
入学希望者の経済環境・学歴などにより入学受付の条件をもうけております。 ご相談の結果、受付をお断りする場合がありますので、あらかじめご了承ください。
入学申し込みご相談はこちら
【2007年10月1日以降】 （消費税込み）
入学金 授業料（1年分） 共済会費 合計
初回 2回目以降
一括納入 50,000円 680,000円 無 10,000円 740,000円
780,000円
分割納入 50,000円 360,000円 2回目
180,000円
10,000円
3回目
180,000円
※認定証明書が交付された方は上記料金の全納をお願いします。
※コースの途中で退学する場合は授業を受けなかった学期単位で授業料をご返金いたします。
※入国後、必ず国民健康保険にご加入ください。医療費自己負担額が3割になります。
※留学共済会は、3割の医療費自己負担額を補償する制度です。
※国民健康保険加入が共済摘要の絶対条件となります。
※料金は全て税込み表示です。
入学申込み手順
STEP.1
入学相談～審査
まずはお問い合わせください。
▼
STEP.2
当校受付け審査終了～申請書類受理、入国管理局に提出
（要：申請手数料20,000円）
▼
STEP.3
結果通知（在留資格認定証明書交付）
交付結果発表（東京入国管理局）～学校より結果通知。入学およびビザ取得に必要な書類一式を送付します。
▼
STEP.4
レベルチェックテスト
▼
STEP.5
在外公館でビザ申請
▼
STEP.6
日本入国
授業開始1週間前を目安に入国して下さい。
▼
STEP.7
オリエンテーション
授業開始前日に行います。
▼
STEP.8
授業開始
いよいよ授業が始まります。日本語の勉強を楽しんでください。
入学相談申し込み前に
入学希望者の経済環境・学歴などにより入学受付の条件をもうけております。 ご相談の結果、受付をお断りする場合がありますので、あらかじめご了承ください。
入学申し込みご相談はこちら
就学ビザ申請 カイ日本語学校
就学ビザ申請の場合の申し込み手続き就学ビザについて
就学ビザは、日本語学校の学生に認められるビザです。滞在資格は「就学」です。このビザは、入国日から1年間のビザで、更新すればさらに1年（全部で2年）もらえます。
外務省のページ
就学ビザを希望する場合は、学校を通して必要書類（学歴や経済状況の証明など）を入国管理局に提出します。
入学時期および募集時期
冬学期生 春学期生 夏学期生 秋学期生
当校申込み 前年8月下旬 前年10月下旬 2月下旬 4月下旬
東京入国管理局に申請 前年9月下旬 前年11月下旬 3月下旬 5月下旬
在留資格認定証明書交付
入学金・授業料支払い 前年11月下旬 2月下旬 5月下旬 8月下旬
大使館・領事館でビザ申請 前年12月下旬 3月下旬 6月下旬 9月下旬
※申請料は、書類が全てそろって申請できる状態になってから受け付けます。
※申し込み受付は、定員に達し次第、締め切ります。
料金
1）ビザ申請手数料：20,000円
※申請書類提出時にお支払いください。
※こちらは返金の対象となりません。ご了承ください。
※料金は全て税込み表示です。
2）授業料1年分（4学期分）
【2007年10月1日以降】 （消費税込み）
入学金 授業料（1年分） 共済会費 合計
初回 2回目以降
一括納入 50,000円 680,000円 無 10,000円 740,000円
780,000円
分割納入 50,000円 360,000円 2回目
180,000円
10,000円
3回目
180,000円
※認定証明書が交付された方は上記料金の全納をお願いします。
※コースの途中で退学する場合は授業を受けなかった学期単位で授業料をご返金いたします。
※入国後、必ず国民健康保険にご加入ください。医療費自己負担額が3割になります。
※留学共済会は、3割の医療費自己負担額を補償する制度です。
※国民健康保険加入が共済摘要の絶対条件となります。
※料金は全て税込み表示です。
入学申込み手順
STEP.1
入学相談～審査
まずはお問い合わせください。
▼
STEP.2
当校受付け審査終了～申請書類受理、入国管理局に提出
（要：申請手数料20,000円）
▼
STEP.3
結果通知（在留資格認定証明書交付）
交付結果発表（東京入国管理局）～学校より結果通知。入学およびビザ取得に必要な書類一式を送付します。
▼
STEP.4
レベルチェックテスト
▼
STEP.5
在外公館でビザ申請
▼
STEP.6
日本入国
授業開始1週間前を目安に入国して下さい。
▼
STEP.7
オリエンテーション
授業開始前日に行います。
▼
STEP.8
授業開始
いよいよ授業が始まります。日本語の勉強を楽しんでください。
入学相談申し込み前に
入学希望者の経済環境・学歴などにより入学受付の条件をもうけております。 ご相談の結果、受付をお断りする場合がありますので、あらかじめご了承ください。
入学申し込みご相談はこちら
就学ビザは、日本語学校の学生に認められるビザです。滞在資格は「就学」です。このビザは、入国日から1年間のビザで、更新すればさらに1年（全部で2年）もらえます。
外務省のページ
就学ビザを希望する場合は、学校を通して必要書類（学歴や経済状況の証明など）を入国管理局に提出します。
入学時期および募集時期
冬学期生 春学期生 夏学期生 秋学期生
当校申込み 前年8月下旬 前年10月下旬 2月下旬 4月下旬
東京入国管理局に申請 前年9月下旬 前年11月下旬 3月下旬 5月下旬
在留資格認定証明書交付
入学金・授業料支払い 前年11月下旬 2月下旬 5月下旬 8月下旬
大使館・領事館でビザ申請 前年12月下旬 3月下旬 6月下旬 9月下旬
※申請料は、書類が全てそろって申請できる状態になってから受け付けます。
※申し込み受付は、定員に達し次第、締め切ります。
料金
1）ビザ申請手数料：20,000円
※申請書類提出時にお支払いください。
※こちらは返金の対象となりません。ご了承ください。
※料金は全て税込み表示です。
2）授業料1年分（4学期分）
【2007年10月1日以降】 （消費税込み）
入学金 授業料（1年分） 共済会費 合計
初回 2回目以降
一括納入 50,000円 680,000円 無 10,000円 740,000円
780,000円
分割納入 50,000円 360,000円 2回目
180,000円
10,000円
3回目
180,000円
※認定証明書が交付された方は上記料金の全納をお願いします。
※コースの途中で退学する場合は授業を受けなかった学期単位で授業料をご返金いたします。
※入国後、必ず国民健康保険にご加入ください。医療費自己負担額が3割になります。
※留学共済会は、3割の医療費自己負担額を補償する制度です。
※国民健康保険加入が共済摘要の絶対条件となります。
※料金は全て税込み表示です。
入学申込み手順
STEP.1
入学相談～審査
まずはお問い合わせください。
▼
STEP.2
当校受付け審査終了～申請書類受理、入国管理局に提出
（要：申請手数料20,000円）
▼
STEP.3
結果通知（在留資格認定証明書交付）
交付結果発表（東京入国管理局）～学校より結果通知。入学およびビザ取得に必要な書類一式を送付します。
▼
STEP.4
レベルチェックテスト
▼
STEP.5
在外公館でビザ申請
▼
STEP.6
日本入国
授業開始1週間前を目安に入国して下さい。
▼
STEP.7
オリエンテーション
授業開始前日に行います。
▼
STEP.8
授業開始
いよいよ授業が始まります。日本語の勉強を楽しんでください。
入学相談申し込み前に
入学希望者の経済環境・学歴などにより入学受付の条件をもうけております。 ご相談の結果、受付をお断りする場合がありますので、あらかじめご了承ください。
入学申し込みご相談はこちら
バングラディッシュの起業家向けセミナー
2005/09/10
バングラディッシュの起業家向けセミナー
今日は早朝９時半からバングラディッシュの起業家向けに講演がある。神奈川県の金沢文庫から電車でさらに１５分程度と少し遠い場所にあるので、前日から研修センターに宿泊した。終電で研修センターに到着したのだが、ホテルではないのでドライヤーや整髪料などがないことに朝になって気づく。写真のような髪型でごめんなさい。
今日のセミナーの内容は私が起業して現在に至るまでの経緯について。弊社は昨年が創業記念日だったがここに至るまでは結構大変だったのでそれが整理できたことは個人的にとても良かった。今回は私が作ったパワーポイントを通訳の方に事前に翻訳していただいたものを使用した。加えて、実際のセミナーも通訳付きでやることになった。私の英語でスピーチするよりは通訳の方に正確に訳してもらったほうが聞いている人にとってもより分かるだろう。
最初はペースがつかめなかったのだが、通訳の方が話されている間は私はオーディエンスを観察することができたので、事前のパワーポイントから少しづつ外してメリハリをつけることでだんだん盛り上がってきたと思う。最後には予想を超える量の質問をもらったし、記念写真でもみんな私の隣で写真を撮ろうとする積極性があり少し感動する。名刺も一気にもらったり渡したりした。
最後にはお土産までもらい、是非バングラディッシュにも会社を作ってくださいといわれた。バングラディッシュへの投資するのもいいかもしれない。月曜日には１人会社に尋ねてくることになった。
今回の講演では一部の質問に対してはそのまま英語で答えることができたので、このペースで通訳なしで英語の講演ができるように頑張りたい。
バングラディッシュの起業家向けセミナー
今日は早朝９時半からバングラディッシュの起業家向けに講演がある。神奈川県の金沢文庫から電車でさらに１５分程度と少し遠い場所にあるので、前日から研修センターに宿泊した。終電で研修センターに到着したのだが、ホテルではないのでドライヤーや整髪料などがないことに朝になって気づく。写真のような髪型でごめんなさい。
今日のセミナーの内容は私が起業して現在に至るまでの経緯について。弊社は昨年が創業記念日だったがここに至るまでは結構大変だったのでそれが整理できたことは個人的にとても良かった。今回は私が作ったパワーポイントを通訳の方に事前に翻訳していただいたものを使用した。加えて、実際のセミナーも通訳付きでやることになった。私の英語でスピーチするよりは通訳の方に正確に訳してもらったほうが聞いている人にとってもより分かるだろう。
最初はペースがつかめなかったのだが、通訳の方が話されている間は私はオーディエンスを観察することができたので、事前のパワーポイントから少しづつ外してメリハリをつけることでだんだん盛り上がってきたと思う。最後には予想を超える量の質問をもらったし、記念写真でもみんな私の隣で写真を撮ろうとする積極性があり少し感動する。名刺も一気にもらったり渡したりした。
最後にはお土産までもらい、是非バングラディッシュにも会社を作ってくださいといわれた。バングラディッシュへの投資するのもいいかもしれない。月曜日には１人会社に尋ねてくることになった。
今回の講演では一部の質問に対してはそのまま英語で答えることができたので、このペースで通訳なしで英語の講演ができるように頑張りたい。
2008年11月3日月曜日
diamond Companies B2B network TradeHolding.com
Welcome to TradeHolding.com!
TradeHolding.com invites you to become part of an exciting international B2B Network. We are a quickly growing B2B network, our goal is to build a global network of B2B websites where companies can find and post their trade offers and maximize their revenue.
To help us to achieve this goal we are always looking for business partners who are interested in building a completely new B2B website or would like to enhance their services buy adding TradeHolding.com market functionality to their existing website.
Quick Start:
diamond Companies, Business Owners: Locate Business Partners Worldwide
diamond Website Owners, Governments, etc.: Add B2B Markeplace Functionality to your website!
diamond New B2B Software / Tehnology: B2B Solution: B2B Portal Software
TradeHolding.com is proud to announce a private label revenue sharing program that is second to none >> read more about private label, revenue sharing solutions
Our growing international TradeHolding.com network consists of:
diamond international non-targeted B2B websites
diamond country specific B2B websites (example: Japan)
diamond regional B2B websites (example: Eastern Europe)
diamond vertical B2B websites (example: Agricultural Products)
diamond country or region specific vertical B2B websites (example: Hong Kong Electronics). International Non-Trageted Example:
bloombiz.tradeholding.com
By partnering with us you can have a similar, private label revenue sharing website in less than 48-72 hours, based on your specific needs!
>> read more about private label, revenue sharing solutions
TradeHolding.com Solutions >> read more about our B2B solutions
diamond Co-Branded, private label revenue sharing solution (hosted by us) >> read more
diamond Private Customized Solution, using our tehnology and expertize >> read more
Home - Terms of Service - Privacy Policy
Copyright 2002 - 2007 © Premier World Ltd. - All Rights Reserved
TradeHolding.com invites you to become part of an exciting international B2B Network. We are a quickly growing B2B network, our goal is to build a global network of B2B websites where companies can find and post their trade offers and maximize their revenue.
To help us to achieve this goal we are always looking for business partners who are interested in building a completely new B2B website or would like to enhance their services buy adding TradeHolding.com market functionality to their existing website.
Quick Start:
diamond Companies, Business Owners: Locate Business Partners Worldwide
diamond Website Owners, Governments, etc.: Add B2B Markeplace Functionality to your website!
diamond New B2B Software / Tehnology: B2B Solution: B2B Portal Software
TradeHolding.com is proud to announce a private label revenue sharing program that is second to none >> read more about private label, revenue sharing solutions
Our growing international TradeHolding.com network consists of:
diamond international non-targeted B2B websites
diamond country specific B2B websites (example: Japan)
diamond regional B2B websites (example: Eastern Europe)
diamond vertical B2B websites (example: Agricultural Products)
diamond country or region specific vertical B2B websites (example: Hong Kong Electronics). International Non-Trageted Example:
bloombiz.tradeholding.com
By partnering with us you can have a similar, private label revenue sharing website in less than 48-72 hours, based on your specific needs!
>> read more about private label, revenue sharing solutions
TradeHolding.com Solutions >> read more about our B2B solutions
diamond Co-Branded, private label revenue sharing solution (hosted by us) >> read more
diamond Private Customized Solution, using our tehnology and expertize >> read more
Home - Terms of Service - Privacy Policy
Copyright 2002 - 2007 © Premier World Ltd. - All Rights Reserved
2008年11月2日日曜日
The “environment” community on Firmafrance.com
The “environment” community on Firmafrance.com aims at promoting French environment, renewable energies, soil remediation, air, water and waste management companies abroad by connecting international decision makers and French managers. Dedicated to foreign companies wishing to identify reliable suppliers and partners, it offers a directory of environment exporters showcases. Updated on a daily basis, business & investment opportunities can be found, as well as breaking news, innovations & new products releases.
Firmafrance.com
Firmafrance.com is the Official French exporters B2B directory, powered by Ubifrance and officially endorsed by the Ministry of the Economy, Finance and Industry of France. Dedicated to foreign companies seeking reliable suppliers and partners in France, it is an ideal way of seizing business opportunities on line. Our database brings together 15 000 leading French exporting companies showcases, as well as breaking news, worldwide events and useful trade links. All services are free of charge.
研 究組織「R-GIRO」のトップである機構長には、学長に 就任していただいています。この「R-GIRO」は、日本が抱える緊急課題に特化して取 り組む、我が国初の研究機構であると自負しています。
産学官連携の最前線から 第10回「研究シンボルを創出する“R-GIRO”」◆
============================================================================
前回、お話しましたが、「不退転の決意」で政策を推進することで、一気に研究パフ
ォーマンスが向上することがあります。今回、紹介する研究組織「立命館グローバル
・イノベーション研究機構（R-GIRO）」は、まさに“その政策”によるものです。
私が「不退転の決意」というのは立命館大学の学内予算から年間3億円を投じ、（1）
効果的で（2）機動力を重視した（3）政策提言型の（4）他大学に類をみない――研
究組織を目指したからです。そして、「R-GIRO」のトップである機構長には、学長に
就任していただいています。この「R-GIRO」は、日本が抱える緊急課題に特化して取
り組む、我が国初の研究機構であると自負しています。
21世紀の科学・技術は、これまでに破壊された地球環境や、枯渇しかけている資源の
回復を念頭に置くべきであり、そのためには自然との「共生」に向けて、革新を図ら
なければなりません。世界的にも「京都議定書」に基づいて、地球温暖化防止への本
格的な取り組みが始まっています。
立命館大学は1995年に、「地球市民のための私立大学であり続けるべく努力する」と
いう「地球市民宣言」を提唱しました。そして、この理念をさらに推し進めるべく、
新たな科学・技術の創成を目指す研究拠点として2008年4月に「R-GIRO」を設立しま
した。
「R-GIRO」は我が国の緊急課題である（1）エネルギー（2）材料資源（3）環境（4）
食糧（5）安全・安心（6）医療・健康――の6つの領域に特化し、科学・技術面から
の解決および異分野領域の融合から生み出される新領域の学術創成を目的としていま
す。また、私立総合学園の特徴を生かした、人文・社会科学系と自然科学系との融合
を強化し、21世紀の要請である「自然共生立国」の構築に貢献することも視野に入れ
ています。
特に同機構のアクティビティーにより、研究の政策重点化や、研究・教育の国際連携
ネットワーク構築が強化されるだけでなく、「科学・技術の創生提案」や「文理融合
の政策立案」が促され、未来を考える“絶好の好機”となります。若手研究者の育成
にとっても、大きな役割を果すものと考えています。少し“キザ”になるかもしれま
せんが、「立命館大学の“知への挑戦”を、R-GIROで是非とも成し遂げたい」という
ことです。
エネルギーと材料資源、環境、食糧、安心・安全、医療・健康という6つの領域は、
「第3期科学技術基本計画」の重点研究分野に含まれていることから、「R-GIRO」は
幅広い研究領域で“受け皿”として機能でき、さらに国家プロジェクトへの積極的な
提案も可能と考えています。とりわけエネルギーと資源の枯渇、食料問題などは、民
間企業でも取り組むべき重点課題なので、産学連携による民間外部資金の獲得という
面からも、大いに期待しています。
「R-GIRO」運営上のポイントは、年間3億円という学内予算の使い方です。課題設定
した6領域について、（1）異分野領域との融合などによる新学術領域の創成（2）次
世代を担う若手研究者の育成（3）新技術開発――などを積極的に支援する「学内提
案公募型研究プログラム（R-GIRO研究プログラム）」を実施するための原資としまし
た。採択した案件には、年間1000万円を5年間、計5000万円を支給しますが、その責
任者には戦略的な研究者の確保と拠点の形成を約束させました。国内大学では、破格
の待遇であり、立命館大学の「研究シンボルを創出していこう」とする決意の表れと
もいえます。
さらに「付帯義務」もあります。“積極的に”取り組む目標として（1）年1回は「立
命館GIROシンポジウム」を開催し、研究成果を積極的に外部へ発信する（2）国家プ
ロジェクトに結びつくような先導的な研究で「グローバルCOEプログラム」や「科学
研究費補助金S、A」などの競争的大型研究資金に積極的にエントリーする（3）「R-
GIRO研究プログラム」で得られた研究成果を学内のみならず、産業界へも積極的に普
及推進し、組織的に取り組める大型産学連携を狙う（4）大学生のみならず、初等・
中等・高等教育に学ぶ生徒への啓発活動を積極的に実施する――という4つの課題を
設定しました。
第1回「R-GIRO研究プログラム」では、学内から“選りすぐり”の応募が40件あり、
その中から12課題を採択しました。自然科学系を中心に、斬新な提案が数多く寄せら
れ、採択した12課題についても今後、さらに「選択と集中」によって精選・強化し、
「○○の研究だったら立命館大学」といわれるような、シンボル的な政策的重点研究
拠点を5拠点ほど設立していきたいと思っています。
この「R-GIRO研究プログラム」は、3年間継続して学内公募を行う予定です。3年後に
は、ポスト・ドクター（ポスドク）などの若手研究者が同プログラムも含め、大学全
体で100人を超えるので、「若手研究者による研究の活性化は間違いない」と確信し
ています。さて、ここで読者の皆さんには、「では、雇用したポスドクのキャリアパ
スはどうするのか」という疑問が湧くことと思いますが、その件については次回、詳
しくお話したいと思います。
最後になりましたが、「R-GIRO」では自然科学系から人文・社会科学系にまで、大き
く羽を広げる政策を進めていることころです。人文・社会科学系でも、“立命館大学
らしい”研究シンボルとなるような「研究領域設定」にチャレンジしています。
特に人文・社会科学系の研究者には、組織的な研究よりも個人的な研究を好む傾向が
あります。政策的に研究拠点化していくことには相当な困難が予想されますが、「R-
GIRO」のトップである学長の求心力があれば、「実現は可能」と大きな期待を抱いて
います。
立命館大学 研究部 次長
理工リサーチオフィス 課長
野口義文
============================================================================
【TOP STORIES】 ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
◆最新の先端技術事業化サイトのオリジナル記事から、
続きは http://innovation.nikkeibp.co.jp/etb/ をご覧ください
━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
============================================================================
前回、お話しましたが、「不退転の決意」で政策を推進することで、一気に研究パフ
ォーマンスが向上することがあります。今回、紹介する研究組織「立命館グローバル
・イノベーション研究機構（R-GIRO）」は、まさに“その政策”によるものです。
私が「不退転の決意」というのは立命館大学の学内予算から年間3億円を投じ、（1）
効果的で（2）機動力を重視した（3）政策提言型の（4）他大学に類をみない――研
究組織を目指したからです。そして、「R-GIRO」のトップである機構長には、学長に
就任していただいています。この「R-GIRO」は、日本が抱える緊急課題に特化して取
り組む、我が国初の研究機構であると自負しています。
21世紀の科学・技術は、これまでに破壊された地球環境や、枯渇しかけている資源の
回復を念頭に置くべきであり、そのためには自然との「共生」に向けて、革新を図ら
なければなりません。世界的にも「京都議定書」に基づいて、地球温暖化防止への本
格的な取り組みが始まっています。
立命館大学は1995年に、「地球市民のための私立大学であり続けるべく努力する」と
いう「地球市民宣言」を提唱しました。そして、この理念をさらに推し進めるべく、
新たな科学・技術の創成を目指す研究拠点として2008年4月に「R-GIRO」を設立しま
した。
「R-GIRO」は我が国の緊急課題である（1）エネルギー（2）材料資源（3）環境（4）
食糧（5）安全・安心（6）医療・健康――の6つの領域に特化し、科学・技術面から
の解決および異分野領域の融合から生み出される新領域の学術創成を目的としていま
す。また、私立総合学園の特徴を生かした、人文・社会科学系と自然科学系との融合
を強化し、21世紀の要請である「自然共生立国」の構築に貢献することも視野に入れ
ています。
特に同機構のアクティビティーにより、研究の政策重点化や、研究・教育の国際連携
ネットワーク構築が強化されるだけでなく、「科学・技術の創生提案」や「文理融合
の政策立案」が促され、未来を考える“絶好の好機”となります。若手研究者の育成
にとっても、大きな役割を果すものと考えています。少し“キザ”になるかもしれま
せんが、「立命館大学の“知への挑戦”を、R-GIROで是非とも成し遂げたい」という
ことです。
エネルギーと材料資源、環境、食糧、安心・安全、医療・健康という6つの領域は、
「第3期科学技術基本計画」の重点研究分野に含まれていることから、「R-GIRO」は
幅広い研究領域で“受け皿”として機能でき、さらに国家プロジェクトへの積極的な
提案も可能と考えています。とりわけエネルギーと資源の枯渇、食料問題などは、民
間企業でも取り組むべき重点課題なので、産学連携による民間外部資金の獲得という
面からも、大いに期待しています。
「R-GIRO」運営上のポイントは、年間3億円という学内予算の使い方です。課題設定
した6領域について、（1）異分野領域との融合などによる新学術領域の創成（2）次
世代を担う若手研究者の育成（3）新技術開発――などを積極的に支援する「学内提
案公募型研究プログラム（R-GIRO研究プログラム）」を実施するための原資としまし
た。採択した案件には、年間1000万円を5年間、計5000万円を支給しますが、その責
任者には戦略的な研究者の確保と拠点の形成を約束させました。国内大学では、破格
の待遇であり、立命館大学の「研究シンボルを創出していこう」とする決意の表れと
もいえます。
さらに「付帯義務」もあります。“積極的に”取り組む目標として（1）年1回は「立
命館GIROシンポジウム」を開催し、研究成果を積極的に外部へ発信する（2）国家プ
ロジェクトに結びつくような先導的な研究で「グローバルCOEプログラム」や「科学
研究費補助金S、A」などの競争的大型研究資金に積極的にエントリーする（3）「R-
GIRO研究プログラム」で得られた研究成果を学内のみならず、産業界へも積極的に普
及推進し、組織的に取り組める大型産学連携を狙う（4）大学生のみならず、初等・
中等・高等教育に学ぶ生徒への啓発活動を積極的に実施する――という4つの課題を
設定しました。
第1回「R-GIRO研究プログラム」では、学内から“選りすぐり”の応募が40件あり、
その中から12課題を採択しました。自然科学系を中心に、斬新な提案が数多く寄せら
れ、採択した12課題についても今後、さらに「選択と集中」によって精選・強化し、
「○○の研究だったら立命館大学」といわれるような、シンボル的な政策的重点研究
拠点を5拠点ほど設立していきたいと思っています。
この「R-GIRO研究プログラム」は、3年間継続して学内公募を行う予定です。3年後に
は、ポスト・ドクター（ポスドク）などの若手研究者が同プログラムも含め、大学全
体で100人を超えるので、「若手研究者による研究の活性化は間違いない」と確信し
ています。さて、ここで読者の皆さんには、「では、雇用したポスドクのキャリアパ
スはどうするのか」という疑問が湧くことと思いますが、その件については次回、詳
しくお話したいと思います。
最後になりましたが、「R-GIRO」では自然科学系から人文・社会科学系にまで、大き
く羽を広げる政策を進めていることころです。人文・社会科学系でも、“立命館大学
らしい”研究シンボルとなるような「研究領域設定」にチャレンジしています。
特に人文・社会科学系の研究者には、組織的な研究よりも個人的な研究を好む傾向が
あります。政策的に研究拠点化していくことには相当な困難が予想されますが、「R-
GIRO」のトップである学長の求心力があれば、「実現は可能」と大きな期待を抱いて
います。
立命館大学 研究部 次長
理工リサーチオフィス 課長
野口義文
============================================================================
【TOP STORIES】 ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
◆最新の先端技術事業化サイトのオリジナル記事から、
続きは http://innovation.nikkeibp.co.jp/etb/ をご覧ください
━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
2008年11月1日土曜日
Esperanto
What is Esperanto?
Esperanto is a planned language which has a simple, straightforward structure and essentially no irregularities. It is therefore much easier to learn than natural languages. The goal of Esperantists is that everyone in the world will continue to speak their native language and learn Esperanto in order to communicate with anyone outside of their own language community. The United States continues to function in English, Mexico functions in Spanish, Japan function in Japanese. But if an American travels in Japan, he will be able to communicate with anyone there in the international language Esperanto.
Where did it come from?
The creator of Esperanto, Dr. Ludoviko Zamenhof, first published his results in 1887. He was born in 1859 in Bialistok, which is now in the northeastern part of Poland about 50 kilometers from the border with Bielorus. At that time it was part of the Russian empire. Ludoviko's parents were Jews. His mother was religious, and he accompanied her regularly to the synagogue where he learned Hebrew. He may also have had a private tutor. His father Marcus was non-religious and an assimilationist. Russian was the language that the family spoke at home. Marcus was a language teacher, very competent but also rigid and pedantic. At home he was a rigid disciplinarian, whereas his wife Rosalie was kind and gentle. From his father young Ludoviko learned German and French, which he also studied at school. There he also studied Latin and Greek. Bialistok had a large Jewish population (18 000 out of a total of about 30 000), and he surely heard Yiddish in the streets. There were also sizable German (6000), Polish (3000), and Russian (4000) communities. Ludoviko was sensitive and precociously intelligent, and from an early age he observed that the different ethnic groups did not get along very well with each other. He concluded that this mutual ill-will derived from the fact that the different groups spoke differerent languages and could not communicate well with each other.
Marcus Zamenhof was an ambitious man and in 1873, when Ludoviko, his oldest son, was 14, the family moved to Warsaw where they lived in an apartment in the Jewish quarter. Marcus was first a supervisor in a private school, and then he obtained a post as a censor for the tsarist government. His job was to censor Jewish books and newspapers. In 1874 Ludoviko, after a period of study at home, was admitted to the fourth class of the Second Philological Gymnasium. There he studied Russian language and literature, Latin, Greek, German, and French. In Warsaw he routinely used Polish, which for the rest of his life he spoke natively or near natively. The observation that he had made in Bialistok about the inability of different ethnic groups to intercommunicate and the resulting ill-will remained very much alive, For a time he toyed with the idea of reviving one of the classical languages, e.g., Latin, to facilitate communication, but he came to the realization that these languages lacked modern vocabulary and were too difficult to realistically expect that modern people would learn them en masse. Since no modern language would be acceptable to everyone, he concluded that the only solution to the problem was to make one up from scratch.
At the age of 15 he began in earnest to create his new language. He had no knowledge of linguistics, which in any event was at that time in its infancy, and no real knowledge of comparative philology. He was also unaware of other efforts, previous and contemporary, to create an artificial language. He had nothing but the languages that he knew, his precocious intelligence and strong powers of reasoning, and his capacity for prolonged effort. His initial plan was true to the languages that he knew, with elaborate conjugations and declensions. Then in 1875 in his fifth year at the gymnasium, he began to study English, and he realized that all of this complexity was really unnecessary, and he abandoned it.
Ludoviko continued to work on his language with some of his classmates. By the time he graduated from the gymnasium in July 1879 at the age of 19 , he had developed a coherent language which was sufficient for writing and speaking. He had tested it by translating some Biblical texts and by writing some original verse. His father was proud of his son's achievement and could see that it showed real linguistic talent, but he was also nervous. Tsarist Russia was not the ideal place to be trying out new ideas. Anyone caught with papers written in some unknown language would immediately be an object of suspicion, and not only would be possessor of the documents be at risk but also people closely associated with him. That could be Marcus Zamenhof, who was smart enough to know that many people resented Jews who had been successful and were eager to find ways to discredit them. Moreover a colleague of Marcus, an conceited amateur psychologist, urged upon Marcus the idea that this obsession with an international language was an indication of incipient insanity. So before Ludoviko left Warsaw for Moscow to begin his university studies in medicine, his father forced him to promise to abandon the language project until later, and he took all of his son's work, tied the manuscripts into a bundle, and locked it in a cupboard, promising to take good care of it.
By 1881 the difficulties of studying in Moscow had become overwhelming, and Ludoviko applied for a transfer to Warsaw University so that he could live at home. It was granted. Back in Warsaw he confided to his mother that his real purpose in life had not changed, that he wanted to promote the brotherhood of man by means of his new language and requested that she intercede with his father to free him from the promise that he had made two years earlier not to work on the language until he had qualified. It turned out the father, unlike the son, had not kept his part of the bargain. He had burned all of Ludovico's work. From that moment Ludovico began the task of recreating what had been destroyed, but he promised to keep his work a secret until he had qualified.
In 1885 Ludovico received his doctor's degree and began to practice medicine in a small town in Lithuania 100 miles north of Bialistok, but he found it difficult to cope with the suffering of his patients, and he decided to specialize in ophthalmology. For the rest of his life he made his living as an ophthalmologist, chiefly in Warsaw. Medicine was one of the few professions not closed to Jews in the Russian empire. Three of his brothers were physicians, and the other was a pharmacist. In the spring of 1887, Ludovico married Clara Zilbernick, the daughter of a modestly prosperous owner of a soap factory in Kaunas, now in Lithuania.
1887
Alexander Zilbernick recognized the genius of his son-in-law and agreed to the use of a substantial part of Clara's dowry to finance the publication of his work. Zamenhof decided to publish in Russian partly because books in Russian were viewed with less suspicion by the government censors, and he decided to use a pseudonym lest suspicions of eccentricity cause damage to his professional career and to the reputation of his brothers. He intended for his language to be called lingva internacia but the pseudonym that he chose, Dr. Esperanto, soon came to designate the language as well as the author. The word 'esperanto' in Esperanto means 'one who is hoping'. In the forty pages of the Unua Libro (= First Book), Zamenhof included a lengthy introduction in which he explained the purpose of his work, a description of the grammar (the famous 16 rules), several examples (2 original poems, a translation of several Biblical passages, and a translated poem), and a dictionary containing 917 roots. Those roots can be transformed into a substantially greater number of usable words by means of Esperanto's ingenious word-building system. Also included were 8 detachable 'promise forms' in which Zamenhof asked the reader to promise to learn the language if 10 million others also made the same written promise. He also asked the reader to promise unconditionally if he were willing. On the back was space for the readers's name and address, and a request that the promise form be sent to the author.
Zamenhof himself translated the Unua Libro into Polish. The Polish version and Langue Internationale were also published in 1887. Dr. Esperanto's International Language , translated by the brilliant Irish linguist, Richard H. Geoghegan, appeared in 1889. Zamenhof also translated the Unua Libro into German. He and Clara began to receive many inquiries, and they began to correspond extensively with people interested in the new language, a practice that Zamenhof continued throughout his life.
Some of the new Esperanto enthusiasts had been followers of the German priest, Martin Schleyer, who in 1879 had published his language Volapük. Schleyer was a brilliant professional philologist who was reputed to know 50 languages, but he failed to understand what Zamenhof had intuitively grasped, namely, that language learning is not easy for ordinary people and that a successful international language has to be easy to learn. His creation was unnecessarily complicated, and it is not clear that anyone ever learned to speak it. Volapük generated a lot of interest for a short period of time, and then faded away. Paradoxically in recent decades there has been a revival of academic interest in Volapük, seen as a precursor to Esperanto, and most of this work has been published in Esperanto.
The Early Movement
There are several biographies of Zamenhof. The only one in English is Zamenhof, Creator of Esperanto by Marjorie Boulton, 1960. There is a copy in the Rice Library. Another much more recent one is La Homo kiu defiis Babelon (The Man who defied Babel) by René Centassi and Henri Masson. It was written in French and has been translated into Esperanto. Much of the information in this summary comes from these two books. They have a lot of information about the movement before Zamenhof's death in 1917. I will include here only the most salient points.
Because of the large volume of requests for information Zamenhof decided to publish a second book as an explanatory supplement to the first. The Dua Libro de la Lingvo Internacia, written entirely in the new language, had received the approval of the censor in January, 1888. He intended to publish it as a series of brochures. However, because of financial difficulties, the project was never completed. The first Esperanto magazine La Esperantisto appeared in Nuremberg September 1, 1889 and lasted until 1895. In 1891 there were 33 textbooks in 12 languages, and local clubs were springing up where they were legal. In 1890 an acquaintance showed Zamenhof a German translation of Charles Dickens' minor novel The Battle of Life, declaring that it would be impossible to translate such a work into Esperanto. Zamenhof translated it, and it appeared in serial form in La Esperantisto.
As Zamenhof and others corresponded, wrote articles for La Esperantisto and other publications, translated literary works, and composed original works in Esperanto, they from time to time needed additional words, and so the vocabulary of the new language grew. In 1893 Zamenhof published a new enlarged dictionary called the Universala Vortaro. It contained about 2650 roots, which were translated into 5 languages: French, English, German, Russian, Polish. In 1894 he published his translation of Hamlet, an important collection of exercises called Ekzercaro, and the Granda Vortaro Germana-Esperanta.
In the early 1890's an important topic of conversation among Esperantists were various 'reforms'. Some were harebrained; others were sensible. Beginning in January, 1894, Zamenhof wrote a series of articles proposing various of the more sensible changes. Since 1893 there had existed a League of Esperantists, consisting of the subscribers to La Esperantisto, and Zamenhof proposed that the membership vote on the proposal: either keep the language as it was, accept all of the proposals for change, or accept only some of them. The membership voted to keep the language as it was. Zamenhof was a very modest, non-authoritarian sort of person. Already in the Unua Libro he had renounced his rights to the language and had stated that it now belonged collectively to those who used it. That he put the reform proposal to a vote in which each member had one vote was very consistent with his character.
Boulogne-sur-Mere, 1905
By 1904 it was obvious to any honest person who bothered to investigate the matter that Esperanto was satisfactory for correspondence, translation, and many forms of literary work, but the language had not been extensively tested in oral use between persons of different nationalities. The first organized international encounter was a meeting of about 100 people, mostly French and British, in Calais in August, 1904. Since the discussions and social events were successful, many participants wanted to repeat the experience. So an invitation was issued for a full-scale Esperanto Congress in Boulogne-sur-Mere in August, 1905. Dr. Zamenhof was pleased about the event but was not eager to participate himself. Although only 46 years old, his health was poor due to the heart condition that would lead to his early death only 12 years later. He had never spoken before a large public gathering; he had a weak voice and a slight speech defect. But he agreed to speak, and in fact his speech was a big success. This congress was the first in a long series of annual meetings which are called in Esperanto 'Universalaj Kongresoj'. One of the important consequences of this first Universala Kongreso was the delegates' approval of the Declaration of the Essentials of Esperantism written by Zamenhof and already available to the them for study. It is generally known as the Boulogne Declaration. If referred to a small green book, published earlier in 1905, entitled Fundamento de Esperanto (Foundations of Esperanto) which had 3 parts, each of which already existed: 1) the 16 rules of grammar which had appeared in the Unua Libro of 1887, 2) the Ekzercaro of 1894, and 3) the Universala Vortaro of 1893. The Boulogne Declaration states that these fundamental parts of the language must remain unchanged. In other respects the language may evolve as needed. Before the delegates disbanded they agreed to meet the following year in Geneva. Thus began a tradition that has continued to the present day, interrupted only by the two world wars. The 89th Universala Kongreso took place in Beijing in July, 2004.
The Ido crisis
France had been since 1887 a major center of Esperantist activity. It was also a center of bitter personal rivalries and quarrelling. The Boulogne Declaration had not been sufficient to suppress the very natural idea that "I could have done better." In 1907 Dr. Louis Couturat, a brilliant French academic who made important contributions to symbolic logic, was largely responsible for bringing the question of an international language before a committee of distinguished academics which bore the name 'Delegation for the Choice of an International Language'. They chose a small Committee of the Delegation. Of the approximately 15 members, only 2 were linguists, and one of them, Otto Jesperson, a very distinguished Danish philologist, was busy creating his own language. Another member was the famous Italian mathematician Peano, who in 1903 had proposed his own solution Latine sine flexione. The goal of the committee was to decide which of various planned languages should be promoted as the international language. One of the peculiar rules of the committee was that no author could argue in favor of his own creation. Zamenhof asked Louis de Beaufront, a prominent French Esperantist and friend, to argue in favor of Esperanto, which he did. After all the presentations had been made, Couturat presented a small grammar and vocabulary which he said had been submitted anonymously for a language which the author wished to call 'Ido'. It was very similar to Esperanto, but with major changes. 'Ido' means 'child, offspring' in Esperanto. De Beaufront defended 'Ido', giving the impression that it would be acceptable to Esperantists. With 5 members present, Couturat forced a vote on a resolution which passed unanimously and which stated that none of the languages was acceptable without modification, and recommended Esperanto with the changes proposed by the Ido project.
Louis de Beaufront was a enigmatic figure, who had made the dubious claim of being of marquis. The whole affair was characterized by a high degree of scheming and conniving and treachery. Finally de Beaufront admitted that he was the author of Ido, but there is substantial reason to believe that the real author was Couturat. The committee had no real authority, and most Esperantists refused to accept its decision. The final result was that a small number of Esperantists went over to Ido and became Idists. For several years there were nasty accusations and denunciations from both sides. Zamenhof himself refused to become involved in the mud-slinging. The crisis may have been beneficial to the stability of Esperanto in the sense that those who were convinced that "they could do better" separated themselves from the movement and were no longer around to cause trouble. There are still a few Idists in the world today. Ido claims to be more 'Western European' than Esperanto, so the appearance in 1922 of the language 'Occidental' took away some of its appeal, and then in 1928 one of the principal Idists, Otto Jesperson, published his own language, Novial (New International Auxiliary Language).
Until 1914
One of the consequences of the Ido crisis was that many Esperantists came to the realization that they needed to be better organized. From the earliest days Zamenhof had worked to create an international organization. In 1908 UEA (Universala Esperanto-Asocio) was created. It remains the principal international organization for all Esperantists. It's central office is in Rotterdam (http://www.uea.org ). The tradition of the annual Universala Kongreso continued, and the speech by Zamenhof continued to be the main event, although he implored other Esperantists to simply think of him as the originator of the idea, which now belonged to all of them jointly, and to cease referring to him as the 'Majstro'. He realized that the personality cult that had grown up around him was not good for the language, that in the long term it would have to stand or fall on its own merits. Even so it is probably true that the passionate devotion and loyalty which ordinary Esperantists felt for him, which he did not seek or encourage, probably did have a salutary stabilizing effect on the movement during the first 30 years, when the new langauge was particularly vulnerable. Finally in 1912 at the UK in Cracow, he stated firmly that he was appearing for the last time as a leader of the movement, that if he were able to attend another UK he would appear "not before you but among you". Paris had been chosen as the host for the 1914 UK and a record 3739 persons from 50 countries indicated their intention to attend. It was to begin on August 2. Before dawn on August 4, advance units of the German 1st army crossed the Belgian frontier in the vicinity of Liege, and the world would never again be the same. There was a UK in San Francisco in 1915 attended by only 163 people. The next UK was in 1920.
After the war
Although there were Esperantists and Esperanto organizations in many countries, the epicenter of Esperanto activity was Europe. World War I was very damaging to the movement. After slaughter on such a large scale it was difficult to recreate the spirit of hope and optimism that had flourished before the war. But the survivors struggled on. The official Esperanto movement has always maintained strict neutrality in politics and religion. In 1921 Eugene Adam, better known by his pseudonym of Lanti, a highly intelligent, self-educated manual worker who had learned Esperanto in an ambulance unit on the Western Front, founded the Sennacia Asocio Tutmonda (approximately World Association of non-Nationalists), a left-wing but not doctrinaire political movement. S.A.T. was at first much favored by the new regime in Russia, until in 1930 there was a breach between the Russian branch and the rest of S.A.T., which became definitely non-Communist. S.A.T. continues to exist, holds annual world congresses, publishes a quality magazine, and has published several Esperanto classics. One of its greatest contributions has been in the field of lexicography.
In 1927 Lanti convinced Prof. Emilo Grosjean-Maupin, who at that time was the Director of the Section for the "General Dictionary" of the Esperanto Academy, to undertake the creation of a new dictionary. He and Gaston Waringhien with the help of various others created the Plena Vortaro (Full Dictionary), which was published by S.A.T. in 1930. It was followed by a significantly enlarged version in 1934. This dictionary is still in print and is still useful. It contains many examples from the writings of Zamenhof and other early writers. Thirty years later Waringhien lead a team which substantially enlarged PV to create PIV (Plena Ilustrita Vortaro) which appeared in 1970. 'Ilustrita' comes from the fact that there are about 70 pages of sometimes useful illustrations in the back. In 2002 this dictionary was again updated, still under the aupices of S.A.T., with the title 'La Nova Plena Ilustrita Vortaro ' or NPIV for short. The illustrations have been incorporated into the text. NPIV has 16 780 main entries and 46 890 words in all.
I am not well informed about the Esperanto movement from 1920 until the mid 1990's, so I won't say much about it. There isn't a lot of readily accessible secondary information, although there is a world of primary information for the enterprising historian. Many local groups have published newletters and magazines. For events since 1940 there are people alive who remember them.
In 1910 the UK was in Washington, D. C. Attendance was relatively low since most Esperantists were then Europeans. The 1915 UK was held in San Francisco only because of the war. Not until the UK in Tokyo in 1965 was there another UK outside of Europe. Non-European UK's since then have been Portland, Oregon, 1972; Reykjavik, Iceland, 1977; Brasilia, Brazil, 1981; Vancouver, Canada, 1984; Beijing, China, 1986; Havanna, Cuba, 1990; Seoul, South Korea, 1994; Adelaide, Australia, 1997; Tel Aviv, Israel, 2000; Fortaleza, Brazil, 2002; Beijing, China, 2004.
ELNA
The Amerika Esperanto-Asocio was founded in Boston in 1905, and in 1908 it merged with several other 'national' groups in the US and Canada to form the Esperanto-Asocio de Norda Ameriko (EANA). In the late 1940's the dictatorial personality and obsessive anti-Communism of the then General Secretary, George Alan Connor, caused a split in the American movement and finally in 1952 the establishment of another national organization, the Esperanto-Ligo por Norda Ameriko (ELNA). Connor's vitriolic attacks against UEA and other Esperantists resulted in his being expelled from UEA in 1956. EANA's newsletter continued to appear for several years with its standard fare of warnings about the Communists conspiracy outside and within America. It gradually faded away.
ELNA (http://www.esperanto-usa.org ) is today the national organization for Esperantists in the United States. Its central office is in El Cerrito, California. At some point after 1908, the Canadians formed their own separate national organization, so that the name of the US organization is a misnomer. It represents only the US, not all of North America.
Updated 10/14/2004
Esperanto is a planned language which has a simple, straightforward structure and essentially no irregularities. It is therefore much easier to learn than natural languages. The goal of Esperantists is that everyone in the world will continue to speak their native language and learn Esperanto in order to communicate with anyone outside of their own language community. The United States continues to function in English, Mexico functions in Spanish, Japan function in Japanese. But if an American travels in Japan, he will be able to communicate with anyone there in the international language Esperanto.
Where did it come from?
The creator of Esperanto, Dr. Ludoviko Zamenhof, first published his results in 1887. He was born in 1859 in Bialistok, which is now in the northeastern part of Poland about 50 kilometers from the border with Bielorus. At that time it was part of the Russian empire. Ludoviko's parents were Jews. His mother was religious, and he accompanied her regularly to the synagogue where he learned Hebrew. He may also have had a private tutor. His father Marcus was non-religious and an assimilationist. Russian was the language that the family spoke at home. Marcus was a language teacher, very competent but also rigid and pedantic. At home he was a rigid disciplinarian, whereas his wife Rosalie was kind and gentle. From his father young Ludoviko learned German and French, which he also studied at school. There he also studied Latin and Greek. Bialistok had a large Jewish population (18 000 out of a total of about 30 000), and he surely heard Yiddish in the streets. There were also sizable German (6000), Polish (3000), and Russian (4000) communities. Ludoviko was sensitive and precociously intelligent, and from an early age he observed that the different ethnic groups did not get along very well with each other. He concluded that this mutual ill-will derived from the fact that the different groups spoke differerent languages and could not communicate well with each other.
Marcus Zamenhof was an ambitious man and in 1873, when Ludoviko, his oldest son, was 14, the family moved to Warsaw where they lived in an apartment in the Jewish quarter. Marcus was first a supervisor in a private school, and then he obtained a post as a censor for the tsarist government. His job was to censor Jewish books and newspapers. In 1874 Ludoviko, after a period of study at home, was admitted to the fourth class of the Second Philological Gymnasium. There he studied Russian language and literature, Latin, Greek, German, and French. In Warsaw he routinely used Polish, which for the rest of his life he spoke natively or near natively. The observation that he had made in Bialistok about the inability of different ethnic groups to intercommunicate and the resulting ill-will remained very much alive, For a time he toyed with the idea of reviving one of the classical languages, e.g., Latin, to facilitate communication, but he came to the realization that these languages lacked modern vocabulary and were too difficult to realistically expect that modern people would learn them en masse. Since no modern language would be acceptable to everyone, he concluded that the only solution to the problem was to make one up from scratch.
At the age of 15 he began in earnest to create his new language. He had no knowledge of linguistics, which in any event was at that time in its infancy, and no real knowledge of comparative philology. He was also unaware of other efforts, previous and contemporary, to create an artificial language. He had nothing but the languages that he knew, his precocious intelligence and strong powers of reasoning, and his capacity for prolonged effort. His initial plan was true to the languages that he knew, with elaborate conjugations and declensions. Then in 1875 in his fifth year at the gymnasium, he began to study English, and he realized that all of this complexity was really unnecessary, and he abandoned it.
Ludoviko continued to work on his language with some of his classmates. By the time he graduated from the gymnasium in July 1879 at the age of 19 , he had developed a coherent language which was sufficient for writing and speaking. He had tested it by translating some Biblical texts and by writing some original verse. His father was proud of his son's achievement and could see that it showed real linguistic talent, but he was also nervous. Tsarist Russia was not the ideal place to be trying out new ideas. Anyone caught with papers written in some unknown language would immediately be an object of suspicion, and not only would be possessor of the documents be at risk but also people closely associated with him. That could be Marcus Zamenhof, who was smart enough to know that many people resented Jews who had been successful and were eager to find ways to discredit them. Moreover a colleague of Marcus, an conceited amateur psychologist, urged upon Marcus the idea that this obsession with an international language was an indication of incipient insanity. So before Ludoviko left Warsaw for Moscow to begin his university studies in medicine, his father forced him to promise to abandon the language project until later, and he took all of his son's work, tied the manuscripts into a bundle, and locked it in a cupboard, promising to take good care of it.
By 1881 the difficulties of studying in Moscow had become overwhelming, and Ludoviko applied for a transfer to Warsaw University so that he could live at home. It was granted. Back in Warsaw he confided to his mother that his real purpose in life had not changed, that he wanted to promote the brotherhood of man by means of his new language and requested that she intercede with his father to free him from the promise that he had made two years earlier not to work on the language until he had qualified. It turned out the father, unlike the son, had not kept his part of the bargain. He had burned all of Ludovico's work. From that moment Ludovico began the task of recreating what had been destroyed, but he promised to keep his work a secret until he had qualified.
In 1885 Ludovico received his doctor's degree and began to practice medicine in a small town in Lithuania 100 miles north of Bialistok, but he found it difficult to cope with the suffering of his patients, and he decided to specialize in ophthalmology. For the rest of his life he made his living as an ophthalmologist, chiefly in Warsaw. Medicine was one of the few professions not closed to Jews in the Russian empire. Three of his brothers were physicians, and the other was a pharmacist. In the spring of 1887, Ludovico married Clara Zilbernick, the daughter of a modestly prosperous owner of a soap factory in Kaunas, now in Lithuania.
1887
Alexander Zilbernick recognized the genius of his son-in-law and agreed to the use of a substantial part of Clara's dowry to finance the publication of his work. Zamenhof decided to publish in Russian partly because books in Russian were viewed with less suspicion by the government censors, and he decided to use a pseudonym lest suspicions of eccentricity cause damage to his professional career and to the reputation of his brothers. He intended for his language to be called lingva internacia but the pseudonym that he chose, Dr. Esperanto, soon came to designate the language as well as the author. The word 'esperanto' in Esperanto means 'one who is hoping'. In the forty pages of the Unua Libro (= First Book), Zamenhof included a lengthy introduction in which he explained the purpose of his work, a description of the grammar (the famous 16 rules), several examples (2 original poems, a translation of several Biblical passages, and a translated poem), and a dictionary containing 917 roots. Those roots can be transformed into a substantially greater number of usable words by means of Esperanto's ingenious word-building system. Also included were 8 detachable 'promise forms' in which Zamenhof asked the reader to promise to learn the language if 10 million others also made the same written promise. He also asked the reader to promise unconditionally if he were willing. On the back was space for the readers's name and address, and a request that the promise form be sent to the author.
Zamenhof himself translated the Unua Libro into Polish. The Polish version and Langue Internationale were also published in 1887. Dr. Esperanto's International Language , translated by the brilliant Irish linguist, Richard H. Geoghegan, appeared in 1889. Zamenhof also translated the Unua Libro into German. He and Clara began to receive many inquiries, and they began to correspond extensively with people interested in the new language, a practice that Zamenhof continued throughout his life.
Some of the new Esperanto enthusiasts had been followers of the German priest, Martin Schleyer, who in 1879 had published his language Volapük. Schleyer was a brilliant professional philologist who was reputed to know 50 languages, but he failed to understand what Zamenhof had intuitively grasped, namely, that language learning is not easy for ordinary people and that a successful international language has to be easy to learn. His creation was unnecessarily complicated, and it is not clear that anyone ever learned to speak it. Volapük generated a lot of interest for a short period of time, and then faded away. Paradoxically in recent decades there has been a revival of academic interest in Volapük, seen as a precursor to Esperanto, and most of this work has been published in Esperanto.
The Early Movement
There are several biographies of Zamenhof. The only one in English is Zamenhof, Creator of Esperanto by Marjorie Boulton, 1960. There is a copy in the Rice Library. Another much more recent one is La Homo kiu defiis Babelon (The Man who defied Babel) by René Centassi and Henri Masson. It was written in French and has been translated into Esperanto. Much of the information in this summary comes from these two books. They have a lot of information about the movement before Zamenhof's death in 1917. I will include here only the most salient points.
Because of the large volume of requests for information Zamenhof decided to publish a second book as an explanatory supplement to the first. The Dua Libro de la Lingvo Internacia, written entirely in the new language, had received the approval of the censor in January, 1888. He intended to publish it as a series of brochures. However, because of financial difficulties, the project was never completed. The first Esperanto magazine La Esperantisto appeared in Nuremberg September 1, 1889 and lasted until 1895. In 1891 there were 33 textbooks in 12 languages, and local clubs were springing up where they were legal. In 1890 an acquaintance showed Zamenhof a German translation of Charles Dickens' minor novel The Battle of Life, declaring that it would be impossible to translate such a work into Esperanto. Zamenhof translated it, and it appeared in serial form in La Esperantisto.
As Zamenhof and others corresponded, wrote articles for La Esperantisto and other publications, translated literary works, and composed original works in Esperanto, they from time to time needed additional words, and so the vocabulary of the new language grew. In 1893 Zamenhof published a new enlarged dictionary called the Universala Vortaro. It contained about 2650 roots, which were translated into 5 languages: French, English, German, Russian, Polish. In 1894 he published his translation of Hamlet, an important collection of exercises called Ekzercaro, and the Granda Vortaro Germana-Esperanta.
In the early 1890's an important topic of conversation among Esperantists were various 'reforms'. Some were harebrained; others were sensible. Beginning in January, 1894, Zamenhof wrote a series of articles proposing various of the more sensible changes. Since 1893 there had existed a League of Esperantists, consisting of the subscribers to La Esperantisto, and Zamenhof proposed that the membership vote on the proposal: either keep the language as it was, accept all of the proposals for change, or accept only some of them. The membership voted to keep the language as it was. Zamenhof was a very modest, non-authoritarian sort of person. Already in the Unua Libro he had renounced his rights to the language and had stated that it now belonged collectively to those who used it. That he put the reform proposal to a vote in which each member had one vote was very consistent with his character.
Boulogne-sur-Mere, 1905
By 1904 it was obvious to any honest person who bothered to investigate the matter that Esperanto was satisfactory for correspondence, translation, and many forms of literary work, but the language had not been extensively tested in oral use between persons of different nationalities. The first organized international encounter was a meeting of about 100 people, mostly French and British, in Calais in August, 1904. Since the discussions and social events were successful, many participants wanted to repeat the experience. So an invitation was issued for a full-scale Esperanto Congress in Boulogne-sur-Mere in August, 1905. Dr. Zamenhof was pleased about the event but was not eager to participate himself. Although only 46 years old, his health was poor due to the heart condition that would lead to his early death only 12 years later. He had never spoken before a large public gathering; he had a weak voice and a slight speech defect. But he agreed to speak, and in fact his speech was a big success. This congress was the first in a long series of annual meetings which are called in Esperanto 'Universalaj Kongresoj'. One of the important consequences of this first Universala Kongreso was the delegates' approval of the Declaration of the Essentials of Esperantism written by Zamenhof and already available to the them for study. It is generally known as the Boulogne Declaration. If referred to a small green book, published earlier in 1905, entitled Fundamento de Esperanto (Foundations of Esperanto) which had 3 parts, each of which already existed: 1) the 16 rules of grammar which had appeared in the Unua Libro of 1887, 2) the Ekzercaro of 1894, and 3) the Universala Vortaro of 1893. The Boulogne Declaration states that these fundamental parts of the language must remain unchanged. In other respects the language may evolve as needed. Before the delegates disbanded they agreed to meet the following year in Geneva. Thus began a tradition that has continued to the present day, interrupted only by the two world wars. The 89th Universala Kongreso took place in Beijing in July, 2004.
The Ido crisis
France had been since 1887 a major center of Esperantist activity. It was also a center of bitter personal rivalries and quarrelling. The Boulogne Declaration had not been sufficient to suppress the very natural idea that "I could have done better." In 1907 Dr. Louis Couturat, a brilliant French academic who made important contributions to symbolic logic, was largely responsible for bringing the question of an international language before a committee of distinguished academics which bore the name 'Delegation for the Choice of an International Language'. They chose a small Committee of the Delegation. Of the approximately 15 members, only 2 were linguists, and one of them, Otto Jesperson, a very distinguished Danish philologist, was busy creating his own language. Another member was the famous Italian mathematician Peano, who in 1903 had proposed his own solution Latine sine flexione. The goal of the committee was to decide which of various planned languages should be promoted as the international language. One of the peculiar rules of the committee was that no author could argue in favor of his own creation. Zamenhof asked Louis de Beaufront, a prominent French Esperantist and friend, to argue in favor of Esperanto, which he did. After all the presentations had been made, Couturat presented a small grammar and vocabulary which he said had been submitted anonymously for a language which the author wished to call 'Ido'. It was very similar to Esperanto, but with major changes. 'Ido' means 'child, offspring' in Esperanto. De Beaufront defended 'Ido', giving the impression that it would be acceptable to Esperantists. With 5 members present, Couturat forced a vote on a resolution which passed unanimously and which stated that none of the languages was acceptable without modification, and recommended Esperanto with the changes proposed by the Ido project.
Louis de Beaufront was a enigmatic figure, who had made the dubious claim of being of marquis. The whole affair was characterized by a high degree of scheming and conniving and treachery. Finally de Beaufront admitted that he was the author of Ido, but there is substantial reason to believe that the real author was Couturat. The committee had no real authority, and most Esperantists refused to accept its decision. The final result was that a small number of Esperantists went over to Ido and became Idists. For several years there were nasty accusations and denunciations from both sides. Zamenhof himself refused to become involved in the mud-slinging. The crisis may have been beneficial to the stability of Esperanto in the sense that those who were convinced that "they could do better" separated themselves from the movement and were no longer around to cause trouble. There are still a few Idists in the world today. Ido claims to be more 'Western European' than Esperanto, so the appearance in 1922 of the language 'Occidental' took away some of its appeal, and then in 1928 one of the principal Idists, Otto Jesperson, published his own language, Novial (New International Auxiliary Language).
Until 1914
One of the consequences of the Ido crisis was that many Esperantists came to the realization that they needed to be better organized. From the earliest days Zamenhof had worked to create an international organization. In 1908 UEA (Universala Esperanto-Asocio) was created. It remains the principal international organization for all Esperantists. It's central office is in Rotterdam (http://www.uea.org ). The tradition of the annual Universala Kongreso continued, and the speech by Zamenhof continued to be the main event, although he implored other Esperantists to simply think of him as the originator of the idea, which now belonged to all of them jointly, and to cease referring to him as the 'Majstro'. He realized that the personality cult that had grown up around him was not good for the language, that in the long term it would have to stand or fall on its own merits. Even so it is probably true that the passionate devotion and loyalty which ordinary Esperantists felt for him, which he did not seek or encourage, probably did have a salutary stabilizing effect on the movement during the first 30 years, when the new langauge was particularly vulnerable. Finally in 1912 at the UK in Cracow, he stated firmly that he was appearing for the last time as a leader of the movement, that if he were able to attend another UK he would appear "not before you but among you". Paris had been chosen as the host for the 1914 UK and a record 3739 persons from 50 countries indicated their intention to attend. It was to begin on August 2. Before dawn on August 4, advance units of the German 1st army crossed the Belgian frontier in the vicinity of Liege, and the world would never again be the same. There was a UK in San Francisco in 1915 attended by only 163 people. The next UK was in 1920.
After the war
Although there were Esperantists and Esperanto organizations in many countries, the epicenter of Esperanto activity was Europe. World War I was very damaging to the movement. After slaughter on such a large scale it was difficult to recreate the spirit of hope and optimism that had flourished before the war. But the survivors struggled on. The official Esperanto movement has always maintained strict neutrality in politics and religion. In 1921 Eugene Adam, better known by his pseudonym of Lanti, a highly intelligent, self-educated manual worker who had learned Esperanto in an ambulance unit on the Western Front, founded the Sennacia Asocio Tutmonda (approximately World Association of non-Nationalists), a left-wing but not doctrinaire political movement. S.A.T. was at first much favored by the new regime in Russia, until in 1930 there was a breach between the Russian branch and the rest of S.A.T., which became definitely non-Communist. S.A.T. continues to exist, holds annual world congresses, publishes a quality magazine, and has published several Esperanto classics. One of its greatest contributions has been in the field of lexicography.
In 1927 Lanti convinced Prof. Emilo Grosjean-Maupin, who at that time was the Director of the Section for the "General Dictionary" of the Esperanto Academy, to undertake the creation of a new dictionary. He and Gaston Waringhien with the help of various others created the Plena Vortaro (Full Dictionary), which was published by S.A.T. in 1930. It was followed by a significantly enlarged version in 1934. This dictionary is still in print and is still useful. It contains many examples from the writings of Zamenhof and other early writers. Thirty years later Waringhien lead a team which substantially enlarged PV to create PIV (Plena Ilustrita Vortaro) which appeared in 1970. 'Ilustrita' comes from the fact that there are about 70 pages of sometimes useful illustrations in the back. In 2002 this dictionary was again updated, still under the aupices of S.A.T., with the title 'La Nova Plena Ilustrita Vortaro ' or NPIV for short. The illustrations have been incorporated into the text. NPIV has 16 780 main entries and 46 890 words in all.
I am not well informed about the Esperanto movement from 1920 until the mid 1990's, so I won't say much about it. There isn't a lot of readily accessible secondary information, although there is a world of primary information for the enterprising historian. Many local groups have published newletters and magazines. For events since 1940 there are people alive who remember them.
In 1910 the UK was in Washington, D. C. Attendance was relatively low since most Esperantists were then Europeans. The 1915 UK was held in San Francisco only because of the war. Not until the UK in Tokyo in 1965 was there another UK outside of Europe. Non-European UK's since then have been Portland, Oregon, 1972; Reykjavik, Iceland, 1977; Brasilia, Brazil, 1981; Vancouver, Canada, 1984; Beijing, China, 1986; Havanna, Cuba, 1990; Seoul, South Korea, 1994; Adelaide, Australia, 1997; Tel Aviv, Israel, 2000; Fortaleza, Brazil, 2002; Beijing, China, 2004.
ELNA
The Amerika Esperanto-Asocio was founded in Boston in 1905, and in 1908 it merged with several other 'national' groups in the US and Canada to form the Esperanto-Asocio de Norda Ameriko (EANA). In the late 1940's the dictatorial personality and obsessive anti-Communism of the then General Secretary, George Alan Connor, caused a split in the American movement and finally in 1952 the establishment of another national organization, the Esperanto-Ligo por Norda Ameriko (ELNA). Connor's vitriolic attacks against UEA and other Esperantists resulted in his being expelled from UEA in 1956. EANA's newsletter continued to appear for several years with its standard fare of warnings about the Communists conspiracy outside and within America. It gradually faded away.
ELNA (http://www.esperanto-usa.org ) is today the national organization for Esperantists in the United States. Its central office is in El Cerrito, California. At some point after 1908, the Canadians formed their own separate national organization, so that the name of the US organization is a misnomer. It represents only the US, not all of North America.
Updated 10/14/2004
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