2007年7月28日土曜日
スーパードルフィー (Super Dollfie) とは、株式会社ボークスによって製造、販売されているレジンキャスト製の一般向け球体関節人形である。SDと略されることもある
ウィキマニア2007 in Taipei、参加予約を受付中。
スーパードルフィー
出典: フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』
移動: ナビゲーション, 検索
スーパードルフィー (Super Dollfie) とは、株式会社ボークスによって製造、販売されているレジンキャスト製の一般向け球体関節人形である。SDと略されることもある。
SDのの目次 [非表示]
1 概要
2 種類
2.1 ボディの種類による分類
2.2 非売品・未発売の種類
3 スーパードルフィーの年齢について
4 素材、メイクの仕様遍歴
5 販売方法
5.1 コラボレーションモデル
6 60cmクラスのスーパードルフィー同士の互換性
6.1 衣装に関する互換性
6.2 パーツの互換性
7 他のドールとの互換性
8 スーパードルフィーと海外製キャストドール
9 スーパードルフィーの世界設定
10 関連項目
11 外部リンク
[編集] 概要
1999年2月発表。以前より発売されていた、ボークス製1/6サイズカスタマイズドールの商品名が「ドルフィー（ドール＋フィギュアの造語）」であったことから、「ドールホビーの最高峰としてスーパードルフィーと名付けた（スーパードルフィーパーフェクトカタログ2 より）」。
そもそもがガレージキットメーカーであるボークスの商品であるため、発売当初は模型雑誌に広告が打たれ、カスタマイズ方法が掲載されるなど、人形というよりはフィギュアに近い扱いがされており、販売数・生産数ともに少なく、受注生産に近い形で販売された。
ユーザーによるカスタマイズを前提とした商品で、着せ替えやウィッグの交換からドールアイの取替えやフェイスのリペイント、果ては削りやパテ盛りによるパーツの改造など、さまざまなレベルでの「カスタマイズ」を楽しめる。
これまでレジンキャスト製のガレージキットの世界の顧客の大半は男性であったが、その中にあって初めて女性をメインターゲットにした商品であり、ボークスのビジネスに大きな変化をもたらした。塗装を「メイク」、バリ取りやパーティングライン消しを「エステ」と読み替えて推奨したりサービス化したりした広報上の工夫も、この製品の特徴の一つである。
近年では日本国内だけでなく、海外にもファン層を広げている。
レジンキャスト製であるため、日光による照射や経時変化等により黄変と呼ばれる劣化が起きる欠点がある。
スーパードルフィーはボークス社の登録商標であり、60cmサイズ、40cmサイズのレジンキャスト製球体関節人形の総称として「スーパードルフィー」の名前を使用するのは誤りである。
[編集] 種類
[編集] ボディの種類による分類
スーパードルフィー - 60cmサイズ。略称SD。9歳女児・9歳男児・天使の3タイプ。
スーパードルフィー13 - 60cmサイズ。略称SD13。13歳女児・13歳男児・精霊の3タイプ。
スーパードルフィー16 - 65cmサイズ。略称SD16。男児「椹木 雪之丞」女児「オリヴィア・モーガン」「アメリア」の3タイプ。
スーパードルフィー17 - 65cmサイズ。略称SD17。現在(2007年5月4日)のところ男児「レイズナー」の1タイプのみ。
ミニスーパードルフィー - 40cmサイズ。略称MSD。ボディは女児・男児・天使の3サイプ。ヘッドは通常ヘッドと耳を付け替えられる妖精ヘッドの2タイプ。
SDキュート - 40cmサイズ。略称SDC。ボディは男児・女児の2タイプ。ミニスーパードルフィーに比べ体型がほっそりしているため、衣服やウィッグの互換性はないとされているが、一部ウィッグは互換して使っている人もいる。（MSD, SDCute用としてボークスより販売されている衣装もある。）
幼SD - 30cmサイズ。女児・男児・天使の3タイプ。
[編集] 非売品・未発売の種類
精天使SD - 23cmサイズ。ボディは天使タイプのみ。販売はされておらず、京都の霞中庵 竹内栖鳳記念館の一部を改装したSD専門展示施設「天使の里」でのイベントや、ドールズパーティーで行われるビンゴ大会の景品として配布されている。その希少性のため、インターネットオークションに出品されると数十万円という高値がつくこともあり、ボークスの社長自ら「（精天使が出品されたことについて）ショックを受けた、要らないのであれば返してください」と発言したことがある。とはいえ、「喜怒哀楽」を表現した数種類あるヘッドの中から、ランダムで組み上げた一体が当選者に手渡されるため、必ず好みのヘッドが手に入るわけではなく、ヘッドの造形自体も「あたり」「はずれ」が大きいといわれている。原型制作・大橋昇。
霊天使SD - 非売品。「あなたが未だこの世に生まれる以前の姿」を表現している。精天使SDよりも更に小さいサイズ。2007年2月22・23日に開催されたスーパードルフィーオーナーズ感謝祭inハウステンボスで公開された。
母SD - 未発売。サイズ不明。「あなたが愛の結晶をその身の内に宿した頃」を表現している。また、天使の里に展示されている「全てのSDの母」である「聖母」を意味することもある。
霊天使SD、母SDに関しては、現在多様なサイズで販売されている海外（韓国）製キャストドールの国内進出を牽制する意味で、設定のみ先行発表したともいわれている。
[編集] スーパードルフィーの年齢について
SDには、公式設定として「9歳」「13歳」「16歳」という年齢がつけられているが、「13歳」とされるものは男女ともに成人の体付きであり、むしろ「9歳」の男女の方が、現実のローティーンに近い。 2001年にSDの成長後（13歳）の姿としてSD13が発表されたことから、従来からのSDに対して自然発生的に「9歳」の設定が付けられた。同時に、MSDを4-5歳とする設定もつけられた。
SDおよびSD13（女児）のサイズは55-60センチで、身長差はほとんどない。SD13はヘッドパーツがSDより一回りほど小さく作られており、長身に見せる工夫がなされている。しかし、近年では「小顔SD」と呼ばれるヘッドパーツの小さなSD出てきているため、一見しただけではSDとSD13の区別がつかない場合もある。
MSDは2006年に「みどり通園バージョン」「まなぶ通園バージョン」の両モデルが発売されたため、幼稚園児であるとの年齢設定が確定された。しかしながら、特に女児の体型は、幼稚園児というより小学生の中〜高学年と見るほうがふさわしい。
[編集] 素材、メイクの仕様遍歴
スーパードルフィー（旧メイクバージョン） - 1999年から2002年にかけて販売されたバージョン。眉が太く、メイクがはっきりしている。現在は、フルチョイスでメイクタイプ「ソリッド」を選択することで、似たテイストのメイクのSDをオーダーすることができる。
新メイクバージョン - 2002年から2003年にかけて販売されたバージョン。ナチュラルメイクに変更された。また、一部のSDは新メイクバージョンの発売に伴ってウィッグやドールアイが変更された。
新ボディバージョン - 2003年5月以降販売されているバージョン。ピュアスキン素材と呼ばれる専用のレジンキャストが使用されている。
すわりっこボディ - いわゆる「女の子ずわり」ができるボディ。膝関節が通常のボディとは異なり深く曲げられるようになっている。
KIPS - keep it posed system の略。従来のSDよりもポーズをつけやすくしたボディ。ポーズを維持するため、関節にシリコンシートが挟み込まれている。
[編集] 販売方法
SDの流通はボークス直営の店舗（ショールーム（SR）と通販、イベント販売に限られている。
スタンダード - 常時、ボークスの店舗で売られているもの。組み立て済み（MSDは未組み立て）の人形とウィッグ、簡単な衣装がセットになっている。
フルチョイス - ボディパーツの指定、瞳、髪の色、メイク、などを自由に選んでオーダーする。「天使のすみか」および「天使の里」と呼ばれる店舗でのみ受けられるサービス。ヘッドパーツには「天使の里」のみでオーダーできるものがあり、「里限定」と呼ばれている。
限定 - イベントやフェアなどに合わせて発売される仕様のもの。上記と違い、衣装が付属する。一定数（一説には数百体程度）を生産し、再生産は行われなかったため、オークション等での高騰を招いていたが、2004年末以降、一部の限定モデルに関しては期間を限定しての受注生産方式が採用された事もあった。（今後もその方式で販売されるものが出るかは不明）
ワンオフ - 特定の人物（職人などと称される）によってアレンジされた一点もの。廃番になったヘッドパーツや試作段階のパーツが使用されることがあり、付属する衣装も一点ものである場合が多い。不定期に「天使のすみか」に入荷し、一定期間展示した後オークションや抽選によって販売される。
[編集] コラボレーションモデル
イアン - 雑誌の企画で制作されたレジンキャスト製球体関節人形。冬目景の文車館来訪記に登場する人形をモデルとしている。
2003年に「ちょびっツ」のヒロイン・ちぃをモデルとしたスーパードルフィーと、「マリア様がみてる」の主人公・福沢祐巳と、その先輩・小笠原祥子をモデルとしたスーパードルフィーが限定販売された。
「下妻物語」が映画化された際、主人公・竜ヶ崎桃子をモデルにしたスーパードルフィー、及びロリータ衣装のセットが販売された。数量限定で、本体にはシリアルナンバーが打たれた。衣装デザインはBABY, THE STARS SHINE BRIGHTが担当した。
2005年冬に「ローゼンメイデン」のヒロイン・真紅を模したスーパードルフィーが、数量限定で製作され抽選で販売された。
2006年冬に「h.NAOTO」とのコラボレーションモデル「くるみ」が、数量限定で製作され抽選で販売された。
2007年春に「ローゼンメイデン」の翠星石・蒼星石を模したスーパードルフィーが、数量限定で製作され抽選で販売された。
[編集] 60cmクラスのスーパードルフィー同士の互換性
[編集] 衣装に関する互換性
SDであっても女児の場合は、オプションの胴体と交換する事で、成人の体型にする事ができる。その場合、アンダーバストとウエストが細くなる。こうする事で衣装の互換性が概ね保たれている。（ただし、2004年10月にラインナップが大幅に変更され、オプションの胴体の単品での販売は行われていない。）こうした事情から、SDにSD13の衣装を着せる場合、旧ボディのオプションパーツで成人体形にしていない場合は、ドレスのウェストがギリギリになるか着せられない場合がある。
13歳男児・16歳男児・17歳男児はひとまわり大きいので、衣装の互換性はほとんどない。16歳男児・17歳男児は13歳男児よりさらに胸板が厚いため、13歳男児用の衣装でも着せられない場合がある。
スタンダードタイプのスーパードルフィー同士でも、旧ボディと新ボディでは、若干のプロポーションの変更が行われているので、レオタードの様に体に密着する様な衣装に関しては、互換性があるとは言い切れないので注意が必要である。
[編集] パーツの互換性
2004年10月の新ラインナップ（新ボディ）以降、ボークスは四肢パーツの単品販売を中止し、ユーザーが交換できるのは手首、足首、頭のみとなった。しかし、それ以前のモデル（旧ボディ）ではパーツ販売が行われると共に、細かな変遷があったので、簡単に解説する。
旧ボディと新ボディでは胴体と脚部の間の球体関節の形状が大きく異なる為、胴体と脚部の間には部品レベルでの互換性がない。しかし、首や肩の形状が近い為、頭部と腕部に関しては互換性がある。（ただし、新ボディ以降に「ピュアスキン」という名称にて、素材となるレジンキャストが一新された為、肌の色や質感は異なる。）
旧ボディのSD13は独自の股関節機構を持っており、SDとの互換性がなく、またSD13少女とSD13少年の間にも互換性がない。
2004年10月以降のいわゆる「新ボディ」からは、少女モデルの関節の形状が統一された。こうしてSD少女とSD13少女との間には、胴体と首・四肢の互換性が確立された。なお新ボディ以降は、SD13と成人体形化されたSDとが統合された事で、ラインナップ上、SDは「9歳」のみとなり、「13歳」は全てSD13となった。
[編集] 他のドールとの互換性
ここでは、60cmクラスのスーパードルフィー(SD,SD13の新旧ボディ)と他の種類の60cm級ドールとの、頭部などのパーツや衣装の互換性について記す。
ユノス - 荒木元太郎が原型を担当したレジンキャスト製球体関節人形。かつてボークスで販売されており、スーパードルフィーのエキストラモデルの扱いになっていた。首の形状が異なるため加工が必要だが、スーパードルフィーのヘッドとユノスのボディとの組み合わせが可能である。スリーサイズが異なるため、衣装の互換性はない。
螺旋堂 - かつて、スーパードルフィーの旧ボディと衣装の互換性があるレジンキャスト製球体関節人形（『螺旋堂ドール』と呼ばれる）を制作・販売していたメーカー（このメーカーはいわゆるラブドールも制作していた。）。螺旋堂ドールには、SDと同様に男女のモデルが存在するが、ボディーにはバリや気泡などが多く、スーパードルフィーよりも品質が悪い事が知られている。しかしながら、少女タイプの螺旋堂ドールには各パーツについて、SD旧少女ボディと互換性がある為、SD旧少女ボディと螺旋堂ドールとでパーツを混在させた作例が存在する。特に頭部に関しては、顔立ちや表情の独自性を求める一部のスーパードルフィーオーナーの支持もあって、比較的受け入れられている。この為、スーパードルフィーのボディと組み合わせた作例がいくつかインターネット上に公開されている。「螺旋」をもじって「ぐるぐる堂」等と称される事もある。なお螺旋堂は、ドルフィードリームを意識した様なプロポーションのレジンキャスト製球体関節人形を「新ボディ」と銘打って発表したが、実際に流通したかどうかは不明である。
海外製キャストドール - 海外製のレジンキャスト製の球体関節人形のこと。スーパードルフィーとパーツや衣装に互換性がある。韓国メーカーが多く参入しているため、「韓国製ドール」「韓ドル」などと呼ばれるが、中国やアメリカのメーカーも参入している。肌色や質感が若干異なるものの、メイクや衣装でごまかせるためスーパードルフィーのヘッドやボディと組み合わせた作例がいくつかインターネット上に公開されている。参入メーカーが多いためパーツのバリエーションが多く、メーカーごとの個性が強いことから熱狂的なファンが存在する。一方で、スーパードルフィーやユノアと酷似したドールを販売しているメーカーが存在するため、一部のスーパードルフィーファンからは蛇蝎のごとく忌み嫌われている。
カスタマイズドール - 60センチクラスのカスタマイズドールには、オビツ60の様に、スーパードルフィーとある程度の衣装の互換性があるものが存在する。（なお、アタッチメントを自作する事で、オビツ60にスーパードルフィーなどの頭部を取り付ける事も可能である。）
創作人形 - スーパードルフィー用の衣装や、グラスアイなどのオプションパーツの流通量は他の同クラスの人形用の衣装よりも豊富なので、オリジナルのドールの製作者の中にはスーパードルフィーとの互換性を意識して制作している者がいるため、創作系ドールの中にはスーパードルフィーと互換性を持つものがある。また、スーパードルフィーに限らず、ドール用のオリジナルヘッドのみを制作・販売しているメーカーも存在する。（Real Missing Linkなど。）
Blythe,Pullip - ヘッドサイズが10インチとスーパードルフィーのヘッドサイズと近いことから、ウィッグやヘアアクセサリーは共有することができる。プーリップヘッドをスーパードルフィーボディと組み合わせた者も居るが、かなりの技量を要する。
フィギュア - 大型のフィギュアの頭部をスーパードルフィーボディと組み合わせた者も居るが、かなりの技量を要する。
[編集] スーパードルフィーと海外製キャストドール
ボークスは朝日ソノラマ刊の「スーパードルフィーパーフェクトカタログ」の116ページ目において、2003年に韓国のソウルに進出した事をレポートする文章の中で、「残念な事にスーパードルフィーの類似品の存在が明らかになった」と主張し、それらを「法の目をくぐり抜けようとした確信犯的類似品」などと表現して非難しており、ドールイベントへの海外製キャストドールの持込を規制している（その次のページでは、京都府警に検挙された日本国内のスーパードルフィーの模造犯に関するレポートが掲載されている。）。
最近では2006年に開催されたドールイベントで、意匠権の侵害を理由に「SDとその関連製品に類似した海外製ドールの持込を禁止する」という規制が設けられ、その曖昧な基準を巡って現在も議論が絶えない状態である。一方で、幼SDやSD16・SD17は、以前から海外製キャストドールで高い人気があった「小型幼児タイプ」と「長身青年タイプ」の模倣ではないかという見方もある。
[編集] スーパードルフィーの世界設定
初期のSDは「異次元からの訪問者」というキャッチコピーで展開されていた。球体関節とテンションゴムによる「創作人形的」な構造に、パーツの交換や改造といった「模型的」なシステムを取り入れたSDは、それまでの着せ替え人形、ガレージキット・フィギュアの中においてまさに「異次元」であり、革新的な「素材」であった。
だが、「天使の里 聖母降臨の儀」の前後を境に、オーナーとSDを密接に繋ぎつける設定展開が盛んになり、それまでの「好みに改造できる球体関節人形のガレージキット」から「購入者の人格を反映する（ボークスは「もうひとりの貴方」と表現する）完成品ドール」へと変化していった。 SD写真集「もうひとりのわたし」にも記載されている「SDの世界観」と題された図説によると、オーナー（SDを所有する人）とSDは「おみ霊（おみたま）」という人智を突き抜けた存在でリンクしており、オーナーとSDは死後も一体の存在であると説いている。こうした擬似宗教的な設定が、一部のSDオーナーから嫌われており、抗議運動が起こった事がある。[1]
余談ではあるが、一連の世界観設定の中で霊魂のような意味合いで使用されている「おみ霊」という単語は、一部の新宗教（真光系諸教団）で実際に使用されている言葉であり、一時はそういった集団とボークスの関係性が疑われたこともあった。
2006年11月、関西ローカル局のテレビ番組でSDが紹介された際に、スタジオで社長自らが「SDを持つと健康になる」等の「五つの効能」を紹介した。「五つの効能」とは、SDを所有することによって「心が癒される（健康）」、「友人が増える（家族）」、「仕事に意欲がわく（収入）」、「知識が増える（教養）」、「自分自身を見つめ直せる（人格）」というものである。
無論、これらの心境や生活の変化は、SD以外の趣味を楽しむ中でも起こり得るものであり、「まるで霊感商法ではないか」とオーナー間で波紋が広がっている。
[編集] 関連項目
カスタマイズドール
人形
ドールアイ
ボークス
[編集] 外部リンク
スーパードルフィー／ボークスWebサイト
SuperDollfie.net／ボークスによるプロモーションサイト
ボークスによる「天使の里」紹介サイト
SuperDollfie Wiki／有志によるまとめサイト
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最終更新 2007年7月15日 (日) 13:57。 All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (詳細は 著作権 を参照)
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プライバシー・ポリシー ウィキペディアについて 免責事項
スーパードルフィー
出典: フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』
移動: ナビゲーション, 検索
スーパードルフィー (Super Dollfie) とは、株式会社ボークスによって製造、販売されているレジンキャスト製の一般向け球体関節人形である。SDと略されることもある。
SDのの目次 [非表示]
1 概要
2 種類
2.1 ボディの種類による分類
2.2 非売品・未発売の種類
3 スーパードルフィーの年齢について
4 素材、メイクの仕様遍歴
5 販売方法
5.1 コラボレーションモデル
6 60cmクラスのスーパードルフィー同士の互換性
6.1 衣装に関する互換性
6.2 パーツの互換性
7 他のドールとの互換性
8 スーパードルフィーと海外製キャストドール
9 スーパードルフィーの世界設定
10 関連項目
11 外部リンク
[編集] 概要
1999年2月発表。以前より発売されていた、ボークス製1/6サイズカスタマイズドールの商品名が「ドルフィー（ドール＋フィギュアの造語）」であったことから、「ドールホビーの最高峰としてスーパードルフィーと名付けた（スーパードルフィーパーフェクトカタログ2 より）」。
そもそもがガレージキットメーカーであるボークスの商品であるため、発売当初は模型雑誌に広告が打たれ、カスタマイズ方法が掲載されるなど、人形というよりはフィギュアに近い扱いがされており、販売数・生産数ともに少なく、受注生産に近い形で販売された。
ユーザーによるカスタマイズを前提とした商品で、着せ替えやウィッグの交換からドールアイの取替えやフェイスのリペイント、果ては削りやパテ盛りによるパーツの改造など、さまざまなレベルでの「カスタマイズ」を楽しめる。
これまでレジンキャスト製のガレージキットの世界の顧客の大半は男性であったが、その中にあって初めて女性をメインターゲットにした商品であり、ボークスのビジネスに大きな変化をもたらした。塗装を「メイク」、バリ取りやパーティングライン消しを「エステ」と読み替えて推奨したりサービス化したりした広報上の工夫も、この製品の特徴の一つである。
近年では日本国内だけでなく、海外にもファン層を広げている。
レジンキャスト製であるため、日光による照射や経時変化等により黄変と呼ばれる劣化が起きる欠点がある。
スーパードルフィーはボークス社の登録商標であり、60cmサイズ、40cmサイズのレジンキャスト製球体関節人形の総称として「スーパードルフィー」の名前を使用するのは誤りである。
[編集] 種類
[編集] ボディの種類による分類
スーパードルフィー - 60cmサイズ。略称SD。9歳女児・9歳男児・天使の3タイプ。
スーパードルフィー13 - 60cmサイズ。略称SD13。13歳女児・13歳男児・精霊の3タイプ。
スーパードルフィー16 - 65cmサイズ。略称SD16。男児「椹木 雪之丞」女児「オリヴィア・モーガン」「アメリア」の3タイプ。
スーパードルフィー17 - 65cmサイズ。略称SD17。現在(2007年5月4日)のところ男児「レイズナー」の1タイプのみ。
ミニスーパードルフィー - 40cmサイズ。略称MSD。ボディは女児・男児・天使の3サイプ。ヘッドは通常ヘッドと耳を付け替えられる妖精ヘッドの2タイプ。
SDキュート - 40cmサイズ。略称SDC。ボディは男児・女児の2タイプ。ミニスーパードルフィーに比べ体型がほっそりしているため、衣服やウィッグの互換性はないとされているが、一部ウィッグは互換して使っている人もいる。（MSD, SDCute用としてボークスより販売されている衣装もある。）
幼SD - 30cmサイズ。女児・男児・天使の3タイプ。
[編集] 非売品・未発売の種類
精天使SD - 23cmサイズ。ボディは天使タイプのみ。販売はされておらず、京都の霞中庵 竹内栖鳳記念館の一部を改装したSD専門展示施設「天使の里」でのイベントや、ドールズパーティーで行われるビンゴ大会の景品として配布されている。その希少性のため、インターネットオークションに出品されると数十万円という高値がつくこともあり、ボークスの社長自ら「（精天使が出品されたことについて）ショックを受けた、要らないのであれば返してください」と発言したことがある。とはいえ、「喜怒哀楽」を表現した数種類あるヘッドの中から、ランダムで組み上げた一体が当選者に手渡されるため、必ず好みのヘッドが手に入るわけではなく、ヘッドの造形自体も「あたり」「はずれ」が大きいといわれている。原型制作・大橋昇。
霊天使SD - 非売品。「あなたが未だこの世に生まれる以前の姿」を表現している。精天使SDよりも更に小さいサイズ。2007年2月22・23日に開催されたスーパードルフィーオーナーズ感謝祭inハウステンボスで公開された。
母SD - 未発売。サイズ不明。「あなたが愛の結晶をその身の内に宿した頃」を表現している。また、天使の里に展示されている「全てのSDの母」である「聖母」を意味することもある。
霊天使SD、母SDに関しては、現在多様なサイズで販売されている海外（韓国）製キャストドールの国内進出を牽制する意味で、設定のみ先行発表したともいわれている。
[編集] スーパードルフィーの年齢について
SDには、公式設定として「9歳」「13歳」「16歳」という年齢がつけられているが、「13歳」とされるものは男女ともに成人の体付きであり、むしろ「9歳」の男女の方が、現実のローティーンに近い。 2001年にSDの成長後（13歳）の姿としてSD13が発表されたことから、従来からのSDに対して自然発生的に「9歳」の設定が付けられた。同時に、MSDを4-5歳とする設定もつけられた。
SDおよびSD13（女児）のサイズは55-60センチで、身長差はほとんどない。SD13はヘッドパーツがSDより一回りほど小さく作られており、長身に見せる工夫がなされている。しかし、近年では「小顔SD」と呼ばれるヘッドパーツの小さなSD出てきているため、一見しただけではSDとSD13の区別がつかない場合もある。
MSDは2006年に「みどり通園バージョン」「まなぶ通園バージョン」の両モデルが発売されたため、幼稚園児であるとの年齢設定が確定された。しかしながら、特に女児の体型は、幼稚園児というより小学生の中〜高学年と見るほうがふさわしい。
[編集] 素材、メイクの仕様遍歴
スーパードルフィー（旧メイクバージョン） - 1999年から2002年にかけて販売されたバージョン。眉が太く、メイクがはっきりしている。現在は、フルチョイスでメイクタイプ「ソリッド」を選択することで、似たテイストのメイクのSDをオーダーすることができる。
新メイクバージョン - 2002年から2003年にかけて販売されたバージョン。ナチュラルメイクに変更された。また、一部のSDは新メイクバージョンの発売に伴ってウィッグやドールアイが変更された。
新ボディバージョン - 2003年5月以降販売されているバージョン。ピュアスキン素材と呼ばれる専用のレジンキャストが使用されている。
すわりっこボディ - いわゆる「女の子ずわり」ができるボディ。膝関節が通常のボディとは異なり深く曲げられるようになっている。
KIPS - keep it posed system の略。従来のSDよりもポーズをつけやすくしたボディ。ポーズを維持するため、関節にシリコンシートが挟み込まれている。
[編集] 販売方法
SDの流通はボークス直営の店舗（ショールーム（SR）と通販、イベント販売に限られている。
スタンダード - 常時、ボークスの店舗で売られているもの。組み立て済み（MSDは未組み立て）の人形とウィッグ、簡単な衣装がセットになっている。
フルチョイス - ボディパーツの指定、瞳、髪の色、メイク、などを自由に選んでオーダーする。「天使のすみか」および「天使の里」と呼ばれる店舗でのみ受けられるサービス。ヘッドパーツには「天使の里」のみでオーダーできるものがあり、「里限定」と呼ばれている。
限定 - イベントやフェアなどに合わせて発売される仕様のもの。上記と違い、衣装が付属する。一定数（一説には数百体程度）を生産し、再生産は行われなかったため、オークション等での高騰を招いていたが、2004年末以降、一部の限定モデルに関しては期間を限定しての受注生産方式が採用された事もあった。（今後もその方式で販売されるものが出るかは不明）
ワンオフ - 特定の人物（職人などと称される）によってアレンジされた一点もの。廃番になったヘッドパーツや試作段階のパーツが使用されることがあり、付属する衣装も一点ものである場合が多い。不定期に「天使のすみか」に入荷し、一定期間展示した後オークションや抽選によって販売される。
[編集] コラボレーションモデル
イアン - 雑誌の企画で制作されたレジンキャスト製球体関節人形。冬目景の文車館来訪記に登場する人形をモデルとしている。
2003年に「ちょびっツ」のヒロイン・ちぃをモデルとしたスーパードルフィーと、「マリア様がみてる」の主人公・福沢祐巳と、その先輩・小笠原祥子をモデルとしたスーパードルフィーが限定販売された。
「下妻物語」が映画化された際、主人公・竜ヶ崎桃子をモデルにしたスーパードルフィー、及びロリータ衣装のセットが販売された。数量限定で、本体にはシリアルナンバーが打たれた。衣装デザインはBABY, THE STARS SHINE BRIGHTが担当した。
2005年冬に「ローゼンメイデン」のヒロイン・真紅を模したスーパードルフィーが、数量限定で製作され抽選で販売された。
2006年冬に「h.NAOTO」とのコラボレーションモデル「くるみ」が、数量限定で製作され抽選で販売された。
2007年春に「ローゼンメイデン」の翠星石・蒼星石を模したスーパードルフィーが、数量限定で製作され抽選で販売された。
[編集] 60cmクラスのスーパードルフィー同士の互換性
[編集] 衣装に関する互換性
SDであっても女児の場合は、オプションの胴体と交換する事で、成人の体型にする事ができる。その場合、アンダーバストとウエストが細くなる。こうする事で衣装の互換性が概ね保たれている。（ただし、2004年10月にラインナップが大幅に変更され、オプションの胴体の単品での販売は行われていない。）こうした事情から、SDにSD13の衣装を着せる場合、旧ボディのオプションパーツで成人体形にしていない場合は、ドレスのウェストがギリギリになるか着せられない場合がある。
13歳男児・16歳男児・17歳男児はひとまわり大きいので、衣装の互換性はほとんどない。16歳男児・17歳男児は13歳男児よりさらに胸板が厚いため、13歳男児用の衣装でも着せられない場合がある。
スタンダードタイプのスーパードルフィー同士でも、旧ボディと新ボディでは、若干のプロポーションの変更が行われているので、レオタードの様に体に密着する様な衣装に関しては、互換性があるとは言い切れないので注意が必要である。
[編集] パーツの互換性
2004年10月の新ラインナップ（新ボディ）以降、ボークスは四肢パーツの単品販売を中止し、ユーザーが交換できるのは手首、足首、頭のみとなった。しかし、それ以前のモデル（旧ボディ）ではパーツ販売が行われると共に、細かな変遷があったので、簡単に解説する。
旧ボディと新ボディでは胴体と脚部の間の球体関節の形状が大きく異なる為、胴体と脚部の間には部品レベルでの互換性がない。しかし、首や肩の形状が近い為、頭部と腕部に関しては互換性がある。（ただし、新ボディ以降に「ピュアスキン」という名称にて、素材となるレジンキャストが一新された為、肌の色や質感は異なる。）
旧ボディのSD13は独自の股関節機構を持っており、SDとの互換性がなく、またSD13少女とSD13少年の間にも互換性がない。
2004年10月以降のいわゆる「新ボディ」からは、少女モデルの関節の形状が統一された。こうしてSD少女とSD13少女との間には、胴体と首・四肢の互換性が確立された。なお新ボディ以降は、SD13と成人体形化されたSDとが統合された事で、ラインナップ上、SDは「9歳」のみとなり、「13歳」は全てSD13となった。
[編集] 他のドールとの互換性
ここでは、60cmクラスのスーパードルフィー(SD,SD13の新旧ボディ)と他の種類の60cm級ドールとの、頭部などのパーツや衣装の互換性について記す。
ユノス - 荒木元太郎が原型を担当したレジンキャスト製球体関節人形。かつてボークスで販売されており、スーパードルフィーのエキストラモデルの扱いになっていた。首の形状が異なるため加工が必要だが、スーパードルフィーのヘッドとユノスのボディとの組み合わせが可能である。スリーサイズが異なるため、衣装の互換性はない。
螺旋堂 - かつて、スーパードルフィーの旧ボディと衣装の互換性があるレジンキャスト製球体関節人形（『螺旋堂ドール』と呼ばれる）を制作・販売していたメーカー（このメーカーはいわゆるラブドールも制作していた。）。螺旋堂ドールには、SDと同様に男女のモデルが存在するが、ボディーにはバリや気泡などが多く、スーパードルフィーよりも品質が悪い事が知られている。しかしながら、少女タイプの螺旋堂ドールには各パーツについて、SD旧少女ボディと互換性がある為、SD旧少女ボディと螺旋堂ドールとでパーツを混在させた作例が存在する。特に頭部に関しては、顔立ちや表情の独自性を求める一部のスーパードルフィーオーナーの支持もあって、比較的受け入れられている。この為、スーパードルフィーのボディと組み合わせた作例がいくつかインターネット上に公開されている。「螺旋」をもじって「ぐるぐる堂」等と称される事もある。なお螺旋堂は、ドルフィードリームを意識した様なプロポーションのレジンキャスト製球体関節人形を「新ボディ」と銘打って発表したが、実際に流通したかどうかは不明である。
海外製キャストドール - 海外製のレジンキャスト製の球体関節人形のこと。スーパードルフィーとパーツや衣装に互換性がある。韓国メーカーが多く参入しているため、「韓国製ドール」「韓ドル」などと呼ばれるが、中国やアメリカのメーカーも参入している。肌色や質感が若干異なるものの、メイクや衣装でごまかせるためスーパードルフィーのヘッドやボディと組み合わせた作例がいくつかインターネット上に公開されている。参入メーカーが多いためパーツのバリエーションが多く、メーカーごとの個性が強いことから熱狂的なファンが存在する。一方で、スーパードルフィーやユノアと酷似したドールを販売しているメーカーが存在するため、一部のスーパードルフィーファンからは蛇蝎のごとく忌み嫌われている。
カスタマイズドール - 60センチクラスのカスタマイズドールには、オビツ60の様に、スーパードルフィーとある程度の衣装の互換性があるものが存在する。（なお、アタッチメントを自作する事で、オビツ60にスーパードルフィーなどの頭部を取り付ける事も可能である。）
創作人形 - スーパードルフィー用の衣装や、グラスアイなどのオプションパーツの流通量は他の同クラスの人形用の衣装よりも豊富なので、オリジナルのドールの製作者の中にはスーパードルフィーとの互換性を意識して制作している者がいるため、創作系ドールの中にはスーパードルフィーと互換性を持つものがある。また、スーパードルフィーに限らず、ドール用のオリジナルヘッドのみを制作・販売しているメーカーも存在する。（Real Missing Linkなど。）
Blythe,Pullip - ヘッドサイズが10インチとスーパードルフィーのヘッドサイズと近いことから、ウィッグやヘアアクセサリーは共有することができる。プーリップヘッドをスーパードルフィーボディと組み合わせた者も居るが、かなりの技量を要する。
フィギュア - 大型のフィギュアの頭部をスーパードルフィーボディと組み合わせた者も居るが、かなりの技量を要する。
[編集] スーパードルフィーと海外製キャストドール
ボークスは朝日ソノラマ刊の「スーパードルフィーパーフェクトカタログ」の116ページ目において、2003年に韓国のソウルに進出した事をレポートする文章の中で、「残念な事にスーパードルフィーの類似品の存在が明らかになった」と主張し、それらを「法の目をくぐり抜けようとした確信犯的類似品」などと表現して非難しており、ドールイベントへの海外製キャストドールの持込を規制している（その次のページでは、京都府警に検挙された日本国内のスーパードルフィーの模造犯に関するレポートが掲載されている。）。
最近では2006年に開催されたドールイベントで、意匠権の侵害を理由に「SDとその関連製品に類似した海外製ドールの持込を禁止する」という規制が設けられ、その曖昧な基準を巡って現在も議論が絶えない状態である。一方で、幼SDやSD16・SD17は、以前から海外製キャストドールで高い人気があった「小型幼児タイプ」と「長身青年タイプ」の模倣ではないかという見方もある。
[編集] スーパードルフィーの世界設定
初期のSDは「異次元からの訪問者」というキャッチコピーで展開されていた。球体関節とテンションゴムによる「創作人形的」な構造に、パーツの交換や改造といった「模型的」なシステムを取り入れたSDは、それまでの着せ替え人形、ガレージキット・フィギュアの中においてまさに「異次元」であり、革新的な「素材」であった。
だが、「天使の里 聖母降臨の儀」の前後を境に、オーナーとSDを密接に繋ぎつける設定展開が盛んになり、それまでの「好みに改造できる球体関節人形のガレージキット」から「購入者の人格を反映する（ボークスは「もうひとりの貴方」と表現する）完成品ドール」へと変化していった。 SD写真集「もうひとりのわたし」にも記載されている「SDの世界観」と題された図説によると、オーナー（SDを所有する人）とSDは「おみ霊（おみたま）」という人智を突き抜けた存在でリンクしており、オーナーとSDは死後も一体の存在であると説いている。こうした擬似宗教的な設定が、一部のSDオーナーから嫌われており、抗議運動が起こった事がある。[1]
余談ではあるが、一連の世界観設定の中で霊魂のような意味合いで使用されている「おみ霊」という単語は、一部の新宗教（真光系諸教団）で実際に使用されている言葉であり、一時はそういった集団とボークスの関係性が疑われたこともあった。
2006年11月、関西ローカル局のテレビ番組でSDが紹介された際に、スタジオで社長自らが「SDを持つと健康になる」等の「五つの効能」を紹介した。「五つの効能」とは、SDを所有することによって「心が癒される（健康）」、「友人が増える（家族）」、「仕事に意欲がわく（収入）」、「知識が増える（教養）」、「自分自身を見つめ直せる（人格）」というものである。
無論、これらの心境や生活の変化は、SD以外の趣味を楽しむ中でも起こり得るものであり、「まるで霊感商法ではないか」とオーナー間で波紋が広がっている。
[編集] 関連項目
カスタマイズドール
人形
ドールアイ
ボークス
[編集] 外部リンク
スーパードルフィー／ボークスWebサイト
SuperDollfie.net／ボークスによるプロモーションサイト
ボークスによる「天使の里」紹介サイト
SuperDollfie Wiki／有志によるまとめサイト
この項目「スーパードルフィー」は、調べものの参考にはなる可能性がありますが、まだ書きかけの項目です。加筆、訂正などをして下さる協力者を求めています。
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最終更新 2007年7月15日 (日) 13:57。 All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (詳細は 著作権 を参照)
Wikipedia® は Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. の米国およびその他の国における登録商標です。
プライバシー・ポリシー ウィキペディアについて 免責事項
商品の流れ
投 稿 者: CHANEL
日 時: 2007-04-29 16:53:07
閲覧回数 214
日本屈指の激安価格と豊富な品揃え、そして購入後の親切なアフターサービス対応で
人気を集めている、【宝石広場】
広い店内には有名ブランドの定番から、旬のアイテムまでがずらり。
腕時計なら常に数千本！
『必ずほしいものがある』というファンの言葉も納得です。
新品はもとより状態の良好な、多種多様な商品を展示・販売しております。
"買う"も"売る"もまとめて面倒みてくれる宝石広場なら
安心したウォッチ＆ジュエリーライフが送れるはずです。
宝石広場： http://www.housekihiroba.com/
●お支払総額
商品代金と発送料がかかります。
お支払総額＝商品代金合計＋発送料０円
●商品の流れ
ご注文確認後に在庫を確認して、お支払総額とお振込いただく口座を記した『ご注文確認メール』をお送りします。当店からの『ご注文確認メール』をご確認のうえメールに記載された期日以内に、当店指定口座に振込下さい。
（尚、お振込手数料はお客様のご負担でお願いいたします。また振込用紙の控えをもって領収書に代えさせて頂きます。領収書の発行はいたしません。）
ご入金が確認でき次第、商品を発送いたします。
※当店がメールを送信後、5日以内にご入金が確認できない場合、キャンセルとさせていただきます。
※お振込名義はご注文者のお名前でお願いいたします。
相違がある場合には、【宝石広場】までメール、
ご連絡をお願いいたします。
● 振込み銀行
□ 三菱東京ＵＦＪ銀行
□ みずほ銀行
□ 三井住友銀行
●ご注文の流れ
[1. ご注文 ]
↓
[2. 在庫確認 ]
↓
[3. ご注文確認メール送信 ]
↓
[4. お客様当店指定口座振込 ]
↓
[5. 商品の発送手配 ]
↓
[6. お客様は商品を接収する]
● 確認後に在庫を確認して、お支払総額とお支払条件を記した『ご注文確認メール』をお送りし商品の発送手配をいたします。
● 商品の性質上、当店にご注文いただいた時点での在庫確認となります。在庫が無い場合にはご連絡いたしますので、その時に入荷までお待ちいただくか、キャンセルされるかお決め下さい。
● 国際EMS速達のが配達前に、メールにてお客様に連絡を入れます。
● 領収書の宛名はお届け先のお客様名となり、宛名の書き直し等は出来ませんので予めご了承ください。
株式会社 宝石広場
〒201600 上海市松江区竜騰路紅河ビル5F
TEL:86-021-80006179 FAX:86-021-80386178
店舗運営責任者:神田 一郎
店舗セキュリティ責任者:神田 一郎
店舗連絡先: housekihiroba@163.com housekihiroba@21cn.com
宝石広場： http://www.housekihiroba.com/
日 時: 2007-04-29 16:53:07
閲覧回数 214
日本屈指の激安価格と豊富な品揃え、そして購入後の親切なアフターサービス対応で
人気を集めている、【宝石広場】
広い店内には有名ブランドの定番から、旬のアイテムまでがずらり。
腕時計なら常に数千本！
『必ずほしいものがある』というファンの言葉も納得です。
新品はもとより状態の良好な、多種多様な商品を展示・販売しております。
"買う"も"売る"もまとめて面倒みてくれる宝石広場なら
安心したウォッチ＆ジュエリーライフが送れるはずです。
宝石広場： http://www.housekihiroba.com/
●お支払総額
商品代金と発送料がかかります。
お支払総額＝商品代金合計＋発送料０円
●商品の流れ
ご注文確認後に在庫を確認して、お支払総額とお振込いただく口座を記した『ご注文確認メール』をお送りします。当店からの『ご注文確認メール』をご確認のうえメールに記載された期日以内に、当店指定口座に振込下さい。
（尚、お振込手数料はお客様のご負担でお願いいたします。また振込用紙の控えをもって領収書に代えさせて頂きます。領収書の発行はいたしません。）
ご入金が確認でき次第、商品を発送いたします。
※当店がメールを送信後、5日以内にご入金が確認できない場合、キャンセルとさせていただきます。
※お振込名義はご注文者のお名前でお願いいたします。
相違がある場合には、【宝石広場】までメール、
ご連絡をお願いいたします。
● 振込み銀行
□ 三菱東京ＵＦＪ銀行
□ みずほ銀行
□ 三井住友銀行
●ご注文の流れ
[1. ご注文 ]
↓
[2. 在庫確認 ]
↓
[3. ご注文確認メール送信 ]
↓
[4. お客様当店指定口座振込 ]
↓
[5. 商品の発送手配 ]
↓
[6. お客様は商品を接収する]
● 確認後に在庫を確認して、お支払総額とお支払条件を記した『ご注文確認メール』をお送りし商品の発送手配をいたします。
● 商品の性質上、当店にご注文いただいた時点での在庫確認となります。在庫が無い場合にはご連絡いたしますので、その時に入荷までお待ちいただくか、キャンセルされるかお決め下さい。
● 国際EMS速達のが配達前に、メールにてお客様に連絡を入れます。
● 領収書の宛名はお届け先のお客様名となり、宛名の書き直し等は出来ませんので予めご了承ください。
株式会社 宝石広場
〒201600 上海市松江区竜騰路紅河ビル5F
TEL:86-021-80006179 FAX:86-021-80386178
店舗運営責任者:神田 一郎
店舗セキュリティ責任者:神田 一郎
店舗連絡先: housekihiroba@163.com housekihiroba@21cn.com
宝石広場： http://www.housekihiroba.com/
麻紐を輸入したい [買います]
お米の収穫用麻紐を大量に輸入する計画があります。機械にセットして使いますので、ある程度の強度が必要です。需要量：年間１３コンテナ（20F）
メーカの方或いは商社の方、先ずデータを下さい（商品写真・強度・価格）
宜しくお願い致します。
仕様: 包装: ６巻き入り／ケース
引渡し条件: C＆F 大阪 数量: １３コンテナ
掲載期日: 2007/03/20
お問い合わせ
印刷用表示
知人に紹介する
連絡先
担当者: 崔 メイ (課長)
会社名: 株式会社洛陽
住所: 日本京都府伏見区, 羽束師古川町３３７
郵便番号: 612-8486
電話番号: 81 075 9212200
ファックス: 81 075 9215200
携帯電話: 09019641556
ウェブサイト: 空白
ホーム > 売買情報 > 繊維、皮革 > 繊維、皮革原料 > 麻 > 麻紐を輸入したい
メーカの方或いは商社の方、先ずデータを下さい（商品写真・強度・価格）
宜しくお願い致します。
仕様: 包装: ６巻き入り／ケース
引渡し条件: C＆F 大阪 数量: １３コンテナ
掲載期日: 2007/03/20
お問い合わせ
印刷用表示
知人に紹介する
連絡先
担当者: 崔 メイ (課長)
会社名: 株式会社洛陽
住所: 日本京都府伏見区, 羽束師古川町３３７
郵便番号: 612-8486
電話番号: 81 075 9212200
ファックス: 81 075 9215200
携帯電話: 09019641556
ウェブサイト: 空白
ホーム > 売買情報 > 繊維、皮革 > 繊維、皮革原料 > 麻 > 麻紐を輸入したい
石製品を生産するできます！
投 稿 者: 佳徳
日 時: 2007-04-25 16:30:48
閲覧回数 147
拝啓 貴社ますますご隆盛の段、心よりお慶び申し上げます。
厦門佳徳石業有限公司は石製品の製造と輸出が一体になった
工貿結合の専門企業で、泉州の崇武に自社の工場があり、
そして、自社の鉱山もおります。ご都合がよければ、
ご案内に来てください。
墓石の方、CADによる完成予想図など、お客様と一緒に建立を
目指してまいります。何かご質問、ご意見、ご要望がございま
したら、お気軽にご相談ください。ご相談、お見積は無料です。
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
連絡方法：
TEL:86-592-5331599
FAX:86-592-5335933
メール：ym8202@yahoo.co.jp
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
日 時: 2007-04-25 16:30:48
閲覧回数 147
拝啓 貴社ますますご隆盛の段、心よりお慶び申し上げます。
厦門佳徳石業有限公司は石製品の製造と輸出が一体になった
工貿結合の専門企業で、泉州の崇武に自社の工場があり、
そして、自社の鉱山もおります。ご都合がよければ、
ご案内に来てください。
墓石の方、CADによる完成予想図など、お客様と一緒に建立を
目指してまいります。何かご質問、ご意見、ご要望がございま
したら、お気軽にご相談ください。ご相談、お見積は無料です。
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
連絡方法：
TEL:86-592-5331599
FAX:86-592-5335933
メール：ym8202@yahoo.co.jp
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
中国から直送にて家具を日本で販売
投 稿 者: takuu
日 時: 2007-06-05 11:45:38
閲覧回数 170
中国から直送にて家具を日本で販売しています
さらに取り扱い増やしたいと思っています。
ソファーなど一個からデザイナー家具のようなモダンな
商品を販売できたらと思っています。
定期便の混載便などで中国から手配してくださり日本で配送できる方募集です
経験ある方など連絡ください
画像、説明文など提供もお願いできればと思っています。
メールはこちらです
yokohama@mx71.tiki.ne.jp
日 時: 2007-06-05 11:45:38
閲覧回数 170
中国から直送にて家具を日本で販売しています
さらに取り扱い増やしたいと思っています。
ソファーなど一個からデザイナー家具のようなモダンな
商品を販売できたらと思っています。
定期便の混載便などで中国から手配してくださり日本で配送できる方募集です
経験ある方など連絡ください
画像、説明文など提供もお願いできればと思っています。
メールはこちらです
yokohama@mx71.tiki.ne.jp
中国本土に御社（日本）製品を紹介する手段として、「中国アリババ」
投 稿 者: JCport
日 時: 2007-05-16 16:29:11
閲覧回数 251
弊社は中国との貿易の仲介をしている会社です。
中国本土に御社（日本）製品を紹介する手段として、「中国アリババ」
に掲載して差し上げます。
写真２枚と１００文字で、１品種２万１千円です。
掲載時の中文翻訳やバイヤーとのやり取りは翻訳も含めて全て弊社が
行いますので中国語の分からない方でも全く問題ありません。
また、輸出入に関するサポートも致します。
ご興味のある方はお気軽にご連絡ください。
＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝
株式会社 JCポート
代表取締役 井田 良一
〒214-0023
川崎市多摩区長尾5-17-20-202
TEL ： 044-930-5521
FAX ： 044-922-7521
Email： ida@jc-port.com
URL ： http://www.jc-port.com/
携帯電話：090-1200-2582
日 時: 2007-05-16 16:29:11
閲覧回数 251
弊社は中国との貿易の仲介をしている会社です。
中国本土に御社（日本）製品を紹介する手段として、「中国アリババ」
に掲載して差し上げます。
写真２枚と１００文字で、１品種２万１千円です。
掲載時の中文翻訳やバイヤーとのやり取りは翻訳も含めて全て弊社が
行いますので中国語の分からない方でも全く問題ありません。
また、輸出入に関するサポートも致します。
ご興味のある方はお気軽にご連絡ください。
＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝
株式会社 JCポート
代表取締役 井田 良一
〒214-0023
川崎市多摩区長尾5-17-20-202
TEL ： 044-930-5521
FAX ： 044-922-7521
Email： ida@jc-port.com
URL ： http://www.jc-port.com/
携帯電話：090-1200-2582
中国商品を仕入れたいと思う方、お気軽にお問い合わせ下さい！
投 稿 者: ヘイガク
日 時: 2007-05-21 14:29:19
閲覧回数 255
はじめまして、私は中国義鳥在住のシンと申します！
私は義鳥で貿易会社を営んでおります！主な経営種目は買い付け代行、現地ガイドサービス、通訳、翻訳などです！
日本在住で中国語が通じないが中国商品を仕入れたいと思う方、お気軽にお問い合わせ下さい！初めの方でもご安心下さい！また、安心ではない方は現地までお越ししてもOKです！義鳥は世界中で一番大きい小商品市場と言われてますので、貴方が欲しい物はきっとここで見つかれます！私も掛け橋になれるよう全力を尽くしますので、よろしくお願い致します！
お問い合わせお待ちしております！
メール：shenbingxue1983@yahoo.co.jp
電話：86＋15958925505／86＋13732446163
日 時: 2007-05-21 14:29:19
閲覧回数 255
はじめまして、私は中国義鳥在住のシンと申します！
私は義鳥で貿易会社を営んでおります！主な経営種目は買い付け代行、現地ガイドサービス、通訳、翻訳などです！
日本在住で中国語が通じないが中国商品を仕入れたいと思う方、お気軽にお問い合わせ下さい！初めの方でもご安心下さい！また、安心ではない方は現地までお越ししてもOKです！義鳥は世界中で一番大きい小商品市場と言われてますので、貴方が欲しい物はきっとここで見つかれます！私も掛け橋になれるよう全力を尽くしますので、よろしくお願い致します！
お問い合わせお待ちしております！
メール：shenbingxue1983@yahoo.co.jp
電話：86＋15958925505／86＋13732446163
日本向け、人材
投 稿 者: 華夏大和促進の会
日 時: 2007-06-16 08:00:04
閲覧回数 139
当方は日本向け、人材を送り出す団体でございます。
当方の人材バンクに登録している方がすべて大卒者でございます。
例のビジネスーモデル：
①ＩＴ人材は日本ＩＴ企業に紹介し、ＩＴ人材として働いてもらう。
②ＩＴ人材は日本企業に紹介、単純体力労働者として働いてもらう。
どちらでも、日本企業から手数料を頂けませんか。ご安心ください。
中国企業でも、日本企業でも、興味がありましたら、ご連絡ください。
連絡先：
ＴＥＬ 86-432-6668616
携 帯 86-135-96397489
ＦＡＸ 86-432-6553516
Ｅメール china_for_japan@yahoo.co.jp
日 時: 2007-06-16 08:00:04
閲覧回数 139
当方は日本向け、人材を送り出す団体でございます。
当方の人材バンクに登録している方がすべて大卒者でございます。
例のビジネスーモデル：
①ＩＴ人材は日本ＩＴ企業に紹介し、ＩＴ人材として働いてもらう。
②ＩＴ人材は日本企業に紹介、単純体力労働者として働いてもらう。
どちらでも、日本企業から手数料を頂けませんか。ご安心ください。
中国企業でも、日本企業でも、興味がありましたら、ご連絡ください。
連絡先：
ＴＥＬ 86-432-6668616
携 帯 86-135-96397489
ＦＡＸ 86-432-6553516
Ｅメール china_for_japan@yahoo.co.jp
C&F
運賃込み条件（うんちんこみじょうけん、CFR = Cost and Freight）とは、貿易における取引条件。
1990年のインコタームズ改正まではC&Fと呼ばれており、現在でもC&Fと呼ばれることがある。C&FがCFRと改正されたのは、「&」という文字がコンピュータ通信で扱いにくい場合があるためである。また、＆の代わりに“N”を用い、CNFと表記されることもあるそうです。
CFRによる契約では、売主（輸出者）は、貨物を荷揚げ地の港で荷揚げするまでの海上運賃を負担し、海上保険料は買主（輸入者）が負担する。危険負担（リスク）は貨物が積み地の港で本船に積み込まれた時点で移転する。売主（輸出者）が船腹手配はどうしても自分の方でやりたいと主張した場合の契約です。
1990年のインコタームズ改正まではC&Fと呼ばれており、現在でもC&Fと呼ばれることがある。C&FがCFRと改正されたのは、「&」という文字がコンピュータ通信で扱いにくい場合があるためである。また、＆の代わりに“N”を用い、CNFと表記されることもあるそうです。
CFRによる契約では、売主（輸出者）は、貨物を荷揚げ地の港で荷揚げするまでの海上運賃を負担し、海上保険料は買主（輸入者）が負担する。危険負担（リスク）は貨物が積み地の港で本船に積み込まれた時点で移転する。売主（輸出者）が船腹手配はどうしても自分の方でやりたいと主張した場合の契約です。
2007年7月27日金曜日
日本の靴メーカーと連絡がつく。
ルイ・ヴィトン 創業者 LOUIS VUITTON
当店URL: http://www.catsssky.com/
問合 あるいは 注文のemail: sdfyfyf@163.com youxiang2008jp@yahoo.co.jp
全品送料無料です
ルイ・ヴィトンは1821年スイスとの国境に近いジュラ山脈のアンシェイ村で誕生。1835年、14歳で家出。400キロの道のりを一年以上かけて歩きパリに辿り着き、オペラ座に近いカプシーヌ大通りにある荷造り用木箱製造兼荷造り職人の見習いとなり働き始める。養母との仲が悪かったため 14才で実家を後にしたといわれています。30歳のときにはすでにフランス随一の鞄職人として、オートクチュールの豪華な衣装を入れる箱詰めの仕事に従事。充分に経験を積んだ後、カプシーヌ通りに世界最初の旅行鞄のアトリエ ルイ・ヴィトンを1854年に設立。輸送機関の発達にスポットを当て、従来の蓋の丸いトランクから積み上げることが容易な平たい蓋を持つトランクや、革よりも軽い防水加工のグレーの布「グリ・トリアノン」を張って作ったトランクなど、旅を原点にし考案した商品は貴族から高い評価を得る。その後、ナポレオン3世皇妃ユウジェニーの専属荷作り職の命を受けたことからその名声は高まり、トランク製造職人としての地位を不動のものに。ルイ・ヴィトンは以後100年以上も人々に愛され続けるブランドの基盤を作り、71歳で生涯を閉じました。
当店URL: http://www.catsssky.com/
問合 あるいは 注文のemail: sdfyfyf@163.com youxiang2008jp@yahoo.co.jp
全品送料無料です
ルイ・ヴィトンは1821年スイスとの国境に近いジュラ山脈のアンシェイ村で誕生。1835年、14歳で家出。400キロの道のりを一年以上かけて歩きパリに辿り着き、オペラ座に近いカプシーヌ大通りにある荷造り用木箱製造兼荷造り職人の見習いとなり働き始める。養母との仲が悪かったため 14才で実家を後にしたといわれています。30歳のときにはすでにフランス随一の鞄職人として、オートクチュールの豪華な衣装を入れる箱詰めの仕事に従事。充分に経験を積んだ後、カプシーヌ通りに世界最初の旅行鞄のアトリエ ルイ・ヴィトンを1854年に設立。輸送機関の発達にスポットを当て、従来の蓋の丸いトランクから積み上げることが容易な平たい蓋を持つトランクや、革よりも軽い防水加工のグレーの布「グリ・トリアノン」を張って作ったトランクなど、旅を原点にし考案した商品は貴族から高い評価を得る。その後、ナポレオン3世皇妃ユウジェニーの専属荷作り職の命を受けたことからその名声は高まり、トランク製造職人としての地位を不動のものに。ルイ・ヴィトンは以後100年以上も人々に愛され続けるブランドの基盤を作り、71歳で生涯を閉じました。
2007年7月26日木曜日
http://gold.ap.teacup.com/buttakuncat/2.html
http://gold.ap.teacup.com/buttakuncat/2.html
さあ今日から仮想の社会へ飛ぶ込む。元々現実の生活自体が仮想の社会のようなモノなので。
マルコポーロを登場させることにした。その周辺を取材しておかないと面白くない。
マルコポーロから敷衍して、あのころの事件、歴史をおさらいしておこう。
セカンドライフ 仮想 メイキング
投稿者: buttakuncat
さあ今日から仮想の社会へ飛ぶ込む。元々現実の生活自体が仮想の社会のようなモノなので。
マルコポーロを登場させることにした。その周辺を取材しておかないと面白くない。
マルコポーロから敷衍して、あのころの事件、歴史をおさらいしておこう。
セカンドライフ 仮想 メイキング
投稿者: buttakuncat
GYANBERG Johann Gutenberg
Name: Johann Gutenberg
Birth Date: c. 1398
Death Date: February 3, 1468
Place of Birth: Mainz, Germany
Place of Death: Mainz, Germany
Nationality: German
Gender: Male
Occupations: inventor, printer
Encyclopedia of World Biography on Johann Gutenberg
The German inventor and printer Johann Gutenberg (ca. 1398-1468) was the inventor of movable-type mechanical printing in Europe.
Johann Gutenberg was born Johann Gensfleisch zur Laden, in Mainz. He was the third child of Freile zum Gensfleisch and his second wife, Else Wirick zum Gutenberg, whose name Johann adopted. Nothing is known of Gutenberg's studies or apprenticeship except that he learned the trade of a goldsmith while living in Mainz. About 1428 his family was exiled as a result of a revolt of the craftsmen against the noble class ruling the town, and in 1430 Gutenberg established himself in Strassburg, where he remained until 1444.
Gutenberg's experiments in printing began during his years in Strassburg. He was already familiar with the techniques of xylography, the process used to make books and other printed matter in Europe since the 14th century, and in the Far East much earlier. Then came the transition from xylography to typography, infinitely more practical for text printing since, instead of reproduction by means of wood carving, a small separate block (type) was used for each sign or character. The idea of movable type may have occurred to many people independently; Gutenberg may have worked in this field about 1436.
Business of Printing
There is no record of Gutenberg's whereabouts after 1444, but he appears again in Mainz according to a document dated October 1448. By 1450 he is known to have had a printing plant, for which he borrowed 800 guilders from the rich financier Johann Fust to enable him to manufacture certain tools and equipment. In December 1452 Gutenberg had to pay off his debt. Being unable to do so, he and Fust concluded a new agreement, under which Gutenberg received another similar loan and the financier became a partner in the enterprise. At that time Gutenberg already printed with movable type, thus making the idea conceived in Strassburg a reality in Mainz. A very valuable assistant to Gutenberg was his young employee and disciple Peter Schoeffer, who joined the firm in 1452. In spite of their successes, the relationship between Gutenberg and Fust took a bad turn, Fust sued Gutenberg for 2,000 guilders, and in 1455 the partnership was dissolved.
Fust won the court action and thereby acquired Gutenberg's materials and tools and went into partnership with Schoeffer.
Provenance of printed works of this period is therefore difficult, especially since there are no printed works surviving with Gutenberg's name on them. From that period dates the monumental and extremely beautiful 42-Line Bible, also called the Gutenberg Bible and Mazarin Bible, a work in big folio which is the crowning of many years of collaboration by the Gutenberg-Fust-Schoeffer team. However, when the first finished copies were turned out in early 1456, Gutenberg, undoubtedly the main creator of the work, no longer belonged to the partnership. Fust continued printing successfully with Gutenberg's equipment and also with machinery improved by Schoeffer. In the meantime Gutenberg, not at all favored by fortune in his various undertakings, had to start all over again. It is believed that the fruit of his work in these years is the 36-Line Bible and the famous Catholicon, a kind of encyclopedia. Again, as Gutenberg never put his name on any of his works, all ascriptions are hypothetical.
Later Years
In 1462 Mainz was sacked by the troops of Adolph II. Fust's printing office was set on fire and Gutenberg suffered losses as well, the same as other craftsmen. In consequence of this disaster many typographers left Mainz, and through their dispersion they also scattered their until now so jealously protected know-how. Gutenberg remained in Mainz, but he was again reduced to poverty, and he requested the archiepiscopal court for a sinecure, which he obtained on Jan. 17, 1465, including salary and privileges "for services rendered ... and to be rendered in the future." Gutenberg's post at the court allowed him some economic relief, but nevertheless he carried on with his printing activities. The works from this final period in his life are unknown because of lack of identification.
Reportedly, Gutenberg became blind in the last months of his life, living partly in Mainz and partly in the neighboring village of Eltville. He died in St. Victor's parish in Mainz on Feb. 3, 1468, and was buried in the church of the Franciscan convent in that town. His physical appearance is unknown, though there are many imaginary depictions of his face and figure, including statues erected in Mainz and Strassburg. In 1900 the Gutenberg Museum was founded in Mainz with a library annexed to it to which all the objects and documents related to the invention of typography were entrusted.
This is the complete article, containing 768 words (approx. 3 pages at 300 words per page).
View More Summaries on Johann Gutenberg
Birth Date: c. 1398
Death Date: February 3, 1468
Place of Birth: Mainz, Germany
Place of Death: Mainz, Germany
Nationality: German
Gender: Male
Occupations: inventor, printer
Encyclopedia of World Biography on Johann Gutenberg
The German inventor and printer Johann Gutenberg (ca. 1398-1468) was the inventor of movable-type mechanical printing in Europe.
Johann Gutenberg was born Johann Gensfleisch zur Laden, in Mainz. He was the third child of Freile zum Gensfleisch and his second wife, Else Wirick zum Gutenberg, whose name Johann adopted. Nothing is known of Gutenberg's studies or apprenticeship except that he learned the trade of a goldsmith while living in Mainz. About 1428 his family was exiled as a result of a revolt of the craftsmen against the noble class ruling the town, and in 1430 Gutenberg established himself in Strassburg, where he remained until 1444.
Gutenberg's experiments in printing began during his years in Strassburg. He was already familiar with the techniques of xylography, the process used to make books and other printed matter in Europe since the 14th century, and in the Far East much earlier. Then came the transition from xylography to typography, infinitely more practical for text printing since, instead of reproduction by means of wood carving, a small separate block (type) was used for each sign or character. The idea of movable type may have occurred to many people independently; Gutenberg may have worked in this field about 1436.
Business of Printing
There is no record of Gutenberg's whereabouts after 1444, but he appears again in Mainz according to a document dated October 1448. By 1450 he is known to have had a printing plant, for which he borrowed 800 guilders from the rich financier Johann Fust to enable him to manufacture certain tools and equipment. In December 1452 Gutenberg had to pay off his debt. Being unable to do so, he and Fust concluded a new agreement, under which Gutenberg received another similar loan and the financier became a partner in the enterprise. At that time Gutenberg already printed with movable type, thus making the idea conceived in Strassburg a reality in Mainz. A very valuable assistant to Gutenberg was his young employee and disciple Peter Schoeffer, who joined the firm in 1452. In spite of their successes, the relationship between Gutenberg and Fust took a bad turn, Fust sued Gutenberg for 2,000 guilders, and in 1455 the partnership was dissolved.
Fust won the court action and thereby acquired Gutenberg's materials and tools and went into partnership with Schoeffer.
Provenance of printed works of this period is therefore difficult, especially since there are no printed works surviving with Gutenberg's name on them. From that period dates the monumental and extremely beautiful 42-Line Bible, also called the Gutenberg Bible and Mazarin Bible, a work in big folio which is the crowning of many years of collaboration by the Gutenberg-Fust-Schoeffer team. However, when the first finished copies were turned out in early 1456, Gutenberg, undoubtedly the main creator of the work, no longer belonged to the partnership. Fust continued printing successfully with Gutenberg's equipment and also with machinery improved by Schoeffer. In the meantime Gutenberg, not at all favored by fortune in his various undertakings, had to start all over again. It is believed that the fruit of his work in these years is the 36-Line Bible and the famous Catholicon, a kind of encyclopedia. Again, as Gutenberg never put his name on any of his works, all ascriptions are hypothetical.
Later Years
In 1462 Mainz was sacked by the troops of Adolph II. Fust's printing office was set on fire and Gutenberg suffered losses as well, the same as other craftsmen. In consequence of this disaster many typographers left Mainz, and through their dispersion they also scattered their until now so jealously protected know-how. Gutenberg remained in Mainz, but he was again reduced to poverty, and he requested the archiepiscopal court for a sinecure, which he obtained on Jan. 17, 1465, including salary and privileges "for services rendered ... and to be rendered in the future." Gutenberg's post at the court allowed him some economic relief, but nevertheless he carried on with his printing activities. The works from this final period in his life are unknown because of lack of identification.
Reportedly, Gutenberg became blind in the last months of his life, living partly in Mainz and partly in the neighboring village of Eltville. He died in St. Victor's parish in Mainz on Feb. 3, 1468, and was buried in the church of the Franciscan convent in that town. His physical appearance is unknown, though there are many imaginary depictions of his face and figure, including statues erected in Mainz and Strassburg. In 1900 the Gutenberg Museum was founded in Mainz with a library annexed to it to which all the objects and documents related to the invention of typography were entrusted.
This is the complete article, containing 768 words (approx. 3 pages at 300 words per page).
View More Summaries on Johann Gutenberg
http://www.gutenberg.us/AboutPGCC.htm#continue
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Rustichello da Pisa 0.03 sec.
Rustichello da Pisa 0.03 sec.
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Rustichello da Pisa (fl. late 13th century) was an Italian romance writer best known for cowriting Marco Polo's autobiography while they were in prison together in Genoa. He had been captured by the Genoese at the Battle of Meloria in 1284, amid a conflict between the Republic of Genoa and his native Pisa. When Polo was imprisoned around 1298 after a clash between Genoa and Venice (according to tradition the Battle of Curzola), he dictated his tales of travel to Rustichello, and together they turned it into the book known as Il Milione or, in English, The Travels of Marco Polo.
Earlier, Rustichello had written a work in French known as the Roman de Roi Artus (Romance of King Arthur) or simply the Compilation, derived from a book in the possession of Edward I of England, who passed through Italy on his way to fight in the Eighth Crusade in 1272, and at whose court Rustichello served for many years. The Compilation contains an interpolation of the Romance of Palamedes, a now-fragmentary prose account of Arthur's Saracen knight Palamedes and the history of the Round Table. It was later divided into two sections, named after their principle protagonists, Meliadus (Tristan's father) and Guiron le Courtois; these remained popular for hundreds of years, and influenced works written in French as well as in Spanish, Italian, and even Greek. ReferencesNorris J. Lacy et al., "Rusticiano da Pisa" from The New Arthurian Encyclopedia, New York: Garland, 1991. ISBN 1-55862-125-3
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Rustichello da Pisa (fl. late 13th century) was an Italian romance writer best known for cowriting Marco Polo's autobiography while they were in prison together in Genoa. He had been captured by the Genoese at the Battle of Meloria in 1284, amid a conflict between the Republic of Genoa and his native Pisa. When Polo was imprisoned around 1298 after a clash between Genoa and Venice (according to tradition the Battle of Curzola), he dictated his tales of travel to Rustichello, and together they turned it into the book known as Il Milione or, in English, The Travels of Marco Polo.
Earlier, Rustichello had written a work in French known as the Roman de Roi Artus (Romance of King Arthur) or simply the Compilation, derived from a book in the possession of Edward I of England, who passed through Italy on his way to fight in the Eighth Crusade in 1272, and at whose court Rustichello served for many years. The Compilation contains an interpolation of the Romance of Palamedes, a now-fragmentary prose account of Arthur's Saracen knight Palamedes and the history of the Round Table. It was later divided into two sections, named after their principle protagonists, Meliadus (Tristan's father) and Guiron le Courtois; these remained popular for hundreds of years, and influenced works written in French as well as in Spanish, Italian, and even Greek. ReferencesNorris J. Lacy et al., "Rusticiano da Pisa" from The New Arthurian Encyclopedia, New York: Garland, 1991. ISBN 1-55862-125-3
External linksWorks by Rustichello da Pisa at Project Gutenberg
Ottoman Empire Also found in: Dictionary/thesaurus, Columbia, Hutchinson 0.04 sec.
Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye
دولت عليه عثماني?
Ottoman Empire Empire
←
1299 — 1922 →
Flag
Late Ottoman flag (1793) Coat of arms
Motto: دولت ابد مدت
Devlet-i Ebed-müddet
("The Eternal State")
Anthem: Ottoman imperial anthem
Location of Ottoman EmpireAt the height of its power (1683)
Capital Söğüt (1299-1326)
Bursa (1326-1365)
Edirne (1365-1453)
Constantinople (Istanbul) (1453-1922)
Government Monarchy|Empire}}
Sultans
- 1281–1326 Osman I
- 1918–1922 Mehmed VI
Grand Viziers
- 1320-1331 Alaeddin Pasha
- 1920-1922 Ahmed Tevfik Pasha
History
- Foundation 1299
- Partition November 17, 1922
Area
- 1914 km2
sq mi
Population
- 1453 est.
- 1878 est.
- 1914 est.
Density /km²
/sq mi
The Ottoman Empire (Ottoman Turkish: دولت عليه عثمانيه - Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye[1]; literally, "The Sublime Ottoman State"), also known in the West as the Turkish Empire, existed from AD 1299 to AD 1922. At the height of its power in the 16th and 17th centuries, the tri-continental Ottoman Empire controlled much of Southeastern Europe, the Middle East and North Africa, stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar (and in 1553 the Atlantic coast of North Africa beyond Gibraltar) in the west to the Caspian Sea and Persian Gulf in the east, from the edge of Austria and Slovakia and the hinterland beyond Ukraine in the north to Sudan and Yemen in the south. The empire was at the center of interactions between the Eastern and Western worlds for six centuries.
With Istanbul (the Ottoman Turkish name of old Constantinople) as its capital, it was the final great Mediterranean Empire and heir to the legacy of Rome and Byzantium in many ways. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman Empire was among the most powerful states of the world, threatening the powers of eastern Europe with its steady advance through the Balkans up until 1683. Its navy was a powerful force in the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, Red Sea, Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. On several occasions, the Ottoman army invaded central Europe, laying siege to Vienna in 1529 and finally battle of Vienna in 1683 in an attempt to conquer the Habsburgs, and was repulsed only by coalitions of European powers on the sea and on land. It was the only Eastern power to seriously challenge the rising power of Western Europe between the 15th and 20th centuries.
The Ottoman Empire steadily declined during the 19th century, and met its demise at the beginning of the 20th century after its defeat in World War I in the Middle Eastern theatre with the other Central Powers. In the aftermath of the war, the Ottoman government collapsed and the victorious powers partitioned the Empire. Subsequent years saw the creation of new states from the remnants of the Empire; at present 39 nation-states (40 including the disputed Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus) have emerged from the former Ottoman territories. In Anatolia, the historical center of the Empire, an emergent Turkish national movement expelled invading forces during the Turkish War of Independence, which concluded with the birth of the Republic of Turkey. The new Republic declared the Sultan and his family, the Ottoman Dynasty, as persona non grata of Turkey. Fifty years later, in 1974, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey granted descendants of the former dynasty the right to acquire Turkish citizenship. History History of the
Ottoman Empire
Periods:
Rise (1299–1453)
Growth (1453–1683)
Stagnation (1683–1827)
Decline (1828–1908)
Dissolution (1908–1922)
See also:
Click
Fall of Constantinople
Tulip Era
Tanzimat era
First Constitutional Era
Second Constitutional Era
European Wars
Russian Wars
Near East Wars
Further information: Timeline of the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Archives
The history of the Ottoman Empire spans more than six centuries, and primary documentation of the empire's relations with other powers is to be found in the archives of thirty-nine nations. Earlier historiography of the empire was based largely on analysis of Ottoman military victories and defeats; current approaches take a wider perspective, the scope of which includes the social dynamics of territorial growth and dissolution, and examination of economic factors and their role in the empire's eventual stagnation and decline.
An examination of Ottoman history from a political and military viewpoint will be presented here; a socioeconomic analysis is treated in separate articles, divided between two periods, the classic period (sometimes referred to as the "era of enlargement"), and the reform period (also called "the era of Westernization").
Origins
Main article: Anatolian Turkish Beyliks
Further information: Turkic peoples, Turkic migration and Oghuz Turks
The Ottoman Empire in its core, the Kai tribe of Oğuz Turks, was part of the westward Turkic migrations from Central Asia that began during the 10th century. Seljuk Turks settled in Persia during this period. The Seljuq dynasty began to push west into Anatolia at the beginning of the 11th century. The Suleyman Shah, grandfather of Osman I, was drowned in the river Euphrates and his tomb resides in current Syria. This movement brought them into conflict with the Byzantine Empire.
The permanent foothold in Anatolia, the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate of the Seljuk Turks, was established a after a historic victory at the Battle of Manzikert against Byzantine Empire in 1071. Under the suzerainty of the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate, the leader Ertuğrul, father of Osman I received a western fringe after backing the Seljuks in a losing border skirmish. The Seljuk system offered the Beylik protection from outsiders, and also allowed it to develop its own internal structure. Ertuğrul with the position on the far western fringe of the Seljuk state enabled him to build up the military power through co-operation with other nations living in western Anatolia, many of whom were Christian.
The Ottoman Beylik (turkish: Osmanoğlu) passed over to another stage, the Anatolian Turkish Beyliks, with the demise of the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate. Following the Mongol invasion of Anatolia in the 13th century, the sultanate collapsed and its territory was divided among a number of Turkish principalities known as Beylik. It became vassals of the Il Khanate of the Mongols. The name Ottoman derives from Osman I (Arabic: Uthman), son of Ertuğrul, who became the first Bey when he declared the independence of the "Ottoman state" in 1299.
Rise (1299–1453)
Main article: Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Military &
Political History
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Time Span 154 years
# Sultans 8
Soc-Econ Enlargement
See also
Osman I, while the other Turkish Beyliks were preoccupied with internal conflicts, was able to extend the frontiers of Ottoman settlement towards the edge of the Byzantine Empire. He moved the Ottoman capital to Bursa, and shaped the early political development of the nation. Given the nickname "Kara" for his courage, Osman I was admired as a strong and dynamic ruler long after his death, as evident in the centuries-old Turkish phrase, "May he be as good as Osman." His reputation has also been burnished by the medieval Turkish story known as "Osman's Dream", a foundation myth in which the young Osman was inspired to conquest by a prescient vision of empire.
This period saw the creation of a formal Ottoman government whose institutions would remain largely unchanged for almost four centuries. In contrast to many contemporary states, the Ottoman bureaucracy tried to avoid military rule. The government also utilized the legal entity known as the millet, under which religious and ethnic minorities were able to manage their own affairs with substantial independence from central control.
In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. After defeat in Battle of Plocnik, the Turkish victory at the Battle of Kosovo effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, and paved the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe. The Ottomans needed almost 100 years to defeat Serbia, which would finally fall in 1459. With the extension of Turkish dominion into the Balkans, the strategic conquest of Constantinople became a crucial objective. The city was eventually taken during the rule of Mehmed II, who was only 12 years old when he became sultan for the first time. Mehmed II reorganized the structure of both the state and the military, and demonstrated his military prowess by capturing Constantinople (see: Istanbul (Etymology)) on May 29, 1453. This event marked the final defeat and collapse of the Byzantine state, and the city became the new capital of the Ottoman Empire.
Growth (1453–1683)
Main article: Growth of the Ottoman Empire
Military &
Political History
Growth of the Ottoman Empire
Time Span 230 years
# Sultans 11
Soc-Econ Enlargement
See also
Ottoman Empire, 1299–1683This period in Ottoman history can roughly be divided into two distinct eras: a golden era of territorial, economic, and cultural growth prior to 1566, followed by an era of relative military and political stagnation.
Following the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman Empire entered a long period of conquest and expansion, extending its borders deep into Europe and North Africa. The Empire prospered under the rule of a series of committed and effecitve sultans, culminating in the rule of Süleyman I (the Magnificent). Conquests on land were driven by the discipline and innovation of the Turkish military; and on the sea, the Ottoman navy established the empire as a great trading power. The state also flourished economically thanks to its control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia.
However, Süleyman's death in 1566 marked the beginning of an era of diminishing territorial gains. The rise of western European nations as naval powers and the development of alternative sea routes from Europe to Asia and the New World damaged the Ottoman economy. The effective military and bureaucratic structures of the previous century also came under strain during a protracted period of misrule by weak Sultans. But in spite of these difficulties, the empire remained a major expansionist power until the Battle of Vienna in 1683, the first major Ottoman defeat on European soil.
Expansion and apogee (1453–1566)
First Siege of Vienna in 1529The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 cemented the status of the empire as the preeminent power in southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. Over the next century, the empire would extend its influence into the heart of the Arab world and come to dominate southeast Europe. Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the empire's eastern and southern frontiers by defeating the young Safavid Shah of Persia, Ismail I, in the Battle of Chaldiran. Selim I established Ottoman rule in Egypt, and created a naval presence on the Red Sea. Selim's successor, Süleyman the Magnificent (1520–1566), further expanded upon Selim's conquests. After capturing Belgrade in 1521, Süleyman conquered Kingdom of Hungary establishing Ottoman rule in the territory of present-day Hungary and other Central European territories, by winning the Battle of Mohacs in 1526. He then laid siege to Vienna in 1529, but failed to take the city after the onset of winter forced his retreat. During the reign of Süleyman, Transylvania, Walachia and, intermittently, Moldavia, became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. In the east, the Ottomans took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535, giving them control of Mesopotamia and naval access to the Persian Gulf.
Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha defeats the Allied European Fleet of Charles V under the command of Andrea Doria at the Battle of Preveza in 1538Under Selim and Süleyman, the empire became a dominant naval force, controlling much of the Mediterranean Sea. The exploits of the Ottoman admiral Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, who commanded the Turkish navy during Süleyman's reign, included a number of impressive military victories. Among these were the conquest of Tunis and Algeria from Spain; the evacuation of Muslims and Jews from Spain to the safety of Ottoman lands (particularly Salonica, Cyprus, and Constantinople) during the Spanish Inquisition; and the capture of Nice from the Holy Roman Empire in 1543. This last conquest occurred on behalf of France as a joint venture between the forces of the French king Francis I and those of Barbarossa. France and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to Hapsburg rule in southern and central Europe, became strong allies during this period. The alliance was economic as well as military, as the sultans granted France the right of trade within the empire without levy of taxation. In fact, the Ottoman Empire was by this time a significant and accepted part of the European political sphere, and entered into a military alliance with France, England and Holland against Habsburg Spain, Italy and Habsburg Austria.
As the 16th century progressed, Ottoman naval superiority was challenged by the upstart sea powers of western Europe, particularly Portugal, in the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean and the Spice Islands. With the Ottomans blockading sea-lanes to the East and South, the European powers were driven to find another way to the ancient Silk and Spice routes, now under absolute Ottoman control. On land, the empire was preoccupied by military campaigns in Austria-Hungary and Persia, two widely-separated theaters of war. The strain of these conflicts on the empire's resources, and the logistics of maintaining lines of supply and communication across such vast distances, ultimately rendered its sea efforts unsustainable and unsuccessful. Despite the Ottomans' strategic vision and partial success in global campaigning, the overriding military need for defense on the western and eastern frontiers of the empire eventually made effective long-term engagement elsewhere impossible.
Revolts and Revival (1566–1683)
Second Siege (Battle) of Vienna in 1683The latter half of the 16th century marked the start of European efforts to curb the Ottoman chokehold on overland trade routes. A number of western European states began to circumvent the Turkish trade monopoly by establishing their own naval routes to Asia. In southern Europe, a coalition of European trading powers on the Italian peninsula formed an alliance to weaken the Ottoman grip on the waters of the Mediterranean Sea. Their victory over the Ottomans at the naval Battle of Lepanto (1571) hastened the end of the empire's primacy in the Mediterranean; and in fact, this battle was considered by some earlier historians to signal the beginning of Ottoman decline.
By the end of the 16th century, the golden era of sweeping conquest and territorial expansion was over. The Hapsburg frontier in particular became a more or less permanent border until the 19th century, marked only by relatively minor battles concentrating on the possession of individual fortresses. This stalemate was partly a reflection of simple geographical limits: in the pre-mechanized age, Vienna marked the furthest point that an Ottoman army could march from Istanbul during the early-spring to late-autumn campaigning season. It also reflected the difficulties imposed on the empire by the need to maintain two separate fronts: one against the Austrians, and the other against a rival Islamic state, the Safavids of Persia.
On the battlefield, the Ottomans gradually fell behind the Europeans in military technology as the innovation which fed the empire's forceful expansion became stifled by growing religious and intellectual conservatism. Changes in European military tactics caused the once-feared Sipahi cavalry to lose its military relevance. Discipline and unit cohesion in the army also became a problem due to relaxations of recruitment policy and the growth of the Janissary corps at the expense of other military units.
Economically, the huge influx of Spanish silver from the New World caused a sharp devaluation of the Ottoman currency and rampant inflation. This had serious negative consequences at all levels of Ottoman society. The period was marked by widespread lawlessness and rebellion in Anatolia in the late 16th and early 17th centuries (commonly known as the Celali rebellions), and Janissary revolts that toppled several governments.
However, the 17th century was not simply an era of stagnation and decline, but also key period in which the Ottoman state and its structures began to adapt to new pressures and new realities, internal and external. The warrior sultan Murad IV (1612–1640), who recaptured Yerevan (1635) and Baghdad (1639) from the Safavids, is the only example in this era of a sultan who exercised strong political and military control of the empire. Notably, Murad IV was the last Ottoman emperor who went to war in front of his army. Modern historians point out that the relative ineffectiveness of the sultans after his reign led to the diffusion of power to lower levels of the government; at first to powerful members of the Harem, and later to a sequence of Grand Viziers. Several important leaders arose at this time, including the sternly reactionary Grand Vizier Mehmed Köprülü (1656-1661) and his more moderate son Fazıl Ahmed Koprülü (1661-1676). Under their leadership the state began to reassert itself with some vigor. Despite internal conflicts within the Ottoman bureaucracy, and between the bureaucracy and military, the 17th century saw the empire expand its frontiers to their furthest reach, with notable gains under the Köprülü administration in Crete, Southern Ukraine and Podolia.
The defeat of Ottoman forces led by Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha at the Second Siege of Vienna in 1683, at the hands of the combined armies of Poland and the Holy Roman Empire under Jan III Sobieski, was the decisive event that swung the balance of power in the region in favor of the European nations. Under the terms of the Treaty of Karlowitz, which ended the Great Turkish War in 1699, the Ottomans ceded nearly all of Ottoman Hungary, Transylvania, the Morea and Podolia to Austria and Poland. They also acknowledged, for the first time in their history, that the Austrian Empire could treat with them on equal terms.
Decline (1699–1908)
The long period of Ottoman decline is typically broken by historians into an era of failed reforms and a subsequent era of modernization. The military and political details of this period are covered in two separate articles: the stagnation of the Ottoman Empire (1699–1827), when the empire began to lose territory along its western borders, but managed to maintain its stature as a great regional power; and the decline of the Ottoman Empire (1828–1908), when the empire lost territory on all fronts, and there was administrative instability due to the breakdown of centralized government.
Reform (1699–1827)
Main article: Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire
Military &
Political History
Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire
Time Span 133 years
# Sultans 11
Soc-Econ
See also
Further wars were lost, and territories ceded, to Austria in the Balkans. Certain areas of the empire, such as Egypt and Algeria, became independent in all but name, and subsequently came under the influence of Britain and France. The 18th century saw centralized authority giving way to varying degrees of provincial autonomy enjoyed by local governors and leaders. A series of wars were fought between the Russian and Ottoman empires from the 17th to the 19th centuries. Ottoman science and technology had been highly regarded in medieval times, as a result of Ottoman scholars' synthesis of classical learning with Islamic philosophy and mathematics, and knowledge of such Chinese advances in technology as gunpowder and the magnetic compass. By this period though the influences had become regressive and conservative. The guilds of writers denounced the printing press as "the Devil's Invention", and were responsible for a 100-year lag between its invention by Johannes Gutenberg in Europe in 1450 and its introduction to the Ottoman society.
During the "Tulip Era" (or Lâle Devri in Turkish), named for Sultan Ahmed III's love of the tulip flower and its use to symbolize his peaceful reign, the empire's policy towards Europe underwent a shift. The region was peaceful between 1718–1730, after the Ottoman victory against Russia in the Pruth Campaign in 1712 and the subsequent Treaty of Passarowitz brought a period of pause in warfare. The empire began to improve the fortifications of cities bordering the Balkans to act as a defense against European expansionism. Other tentative reforms were also enacted: taxes were lowered; there were attempts to improve the image of the Ottoman state; and the first instances of private investment and entrepreneurship occurred.
Ottoman military reform efforts Sultan Selim III (1789-1807) made the first major attempts to modernize the army along European lines. These efforts, however, were hampered by reactionism, partly from the religious leadership, but primarily from the Janissary corps, who had become anarchic and ineffectual, jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic Mahmud II, who massacred the Janissary corps in 1826. Later on in Ottoman history there were educational and technological reforms, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as Istanbul Technical University; but decline continued despite these measures.
Modernization (1828–1908)
Main article: Decline of the Ottoman Empire
Military &
Political History
Decline of the Ottoman Empire
Time Span 82 years
# Sultans 5
Soc-Econ Reformation
See also
Mahmud II started the modernization of Turkey by preparing the Edict of Tanzimat in 1839 which had immediate effects such as European style clothing, architecture, legislation, institutional organization and land reform.
The period of the Ottoman Empire's decline was characterised by the reorganization and transformation of most of the empire's structures in an attempt to bolster the empire against increasingly powerful rivals.
The Tanzimat period (from Arabic Tanzîmât, meaning "reorganisation") lasted from 1839 to 1876. During this period, many significant changes were implemented: a fairly modern conscripted army was organized; the banking system was reformed; and the guilds were replaced with modern factories. Economically, the empire had difficulty in repaying its loans to European banks; at the same time, it faced military challenges in defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation: Egypt, for instance, was occupied by the French in 1798, while Cyprus was loaned to the British in 1878 in exchange of Britain's favours at the Congress of Berlin following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire at the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. In a significant shift in military and diplomatic policy, the empire ceased to enter conflicts on its own and began to forge alliances with European countries. There were a series of such alliances with France, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and Russia. As an example, in the Crimean War the Ottomans united with the British, French, and others against Russia.
The rise of nationalism swept through many countries during the 19th century, and the Ottoman Empire was not immune. A burgeoning national consciousness, together with a growing sense of ethnic nationalism, made nationalistic thought one of the most significant Western ideas imported by the Ottoman empire, as it was forced to deal with nationalism-related issues both within and beyond its borders. There was a significant increase in the number of revolutionary political parties. Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many far-reaching consequences during the 19th century and determined much of Ottoman policy during the early 20th century. Many Ottoman Turks questioned whether the policies of the state were to blame: some felt that the sources of ethnic conflict were external, and unrelated to issues of governance. While this era was not without some successes, the ability of the Ottoman state to have any effect on ethnic uprisings was seriously called into question. Reforms did not halt the rise of nationalism in the Danubian Principalities and Serbia, which had been semi-independent for almost 6 decades; in 1875 Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Wallachia and Moldova declared their independence from the Empire; and following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, independence was formally granted to Serbia, Romania and Montenegro, with the other Balkan territories remaining under Ottoman control.
Opening ceremony of the First Ottoman Parliament at the Dolmabahçe Palace in 1876The era of the empire's First Constitutional government (or Birinci Meşrûtiyet Devri in Turkish), was short-lived; however, the idea behind it (Ottomanism), proved influential. A wide-ranging group of reformers known as the Young Ottomans, primarily educated in Western universities, believed that a constitutional monarchy would provide an answer to the empire's growing social unrest. Through a military coup in 1876, they forced Sultan Abdülaziz (1861-1876) to abdicate in favour of Murad V. However, Murad V was mentally ill, and was deposed within a few months. His heir-apparent Abdülhamid II (1876-1909) was invited to assume power on the condition that he would accept to declare a constitutional monarchy, which he did on 23 November 1876. However, the subsequent constitution, called the Kanûn-ı Esâsî (meaning "Basic Law" in Ottoman Turkish), written by members of the Young Ottomans, survived for only two years.
Despite the empire's label as the "Sick man of Europe", from an economic perspective, the empire's actual weakness did not reside in its developing economy, but the cultural gap which separated it from the European powers. The empire's problems were, in fact, the result of an inability to deal with the new problems created by the conflict between external imperialism and rising internal nationalism. (See socioeconomics during the Ottoman reformation era.)
Dissolution (1908–1922)
Main article: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
Military &
Political History
Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
Time Span 14 years
# Sultans 2
Soc-Econ Reformation
See also
Public demonstration in the Sultanahmet district of Istanbul, 1908
The period of the Ottoman Empire's final dissolution began with the onset of the Second Constitutional Era (or İkinci Meşrûtiyet Devri in Turkish). This era is dominated by the Committee of Union and Progress (or İttihâd ve Terakkî Cemiyeti in Turkish) and the movement that would become known as the "Young Turks" (or Jön Türkler in Turkish). The Young Turk Revolution began on 3 July 1908 and quickly spread throughout the empire, resulting in the sultan's announcement of the restoration of the 1876 constitution and the reconvening of parliament. The constitutional era had a lapse between Countercoup (1909) and counter-revolution 31 March Incident that ended with the the sultan Abdulhamid II deposed and sent to exile in Selanik, and replaced by his brother Mehmed V Reşad.
The Balkan Wars of 1912-13, following the Italian occupation of Libya in 1911, were the first real test for the Committee of Union and Progress. The new Balkan states which were formed at the end of the 19th century sought additional territories from the Ottoman provinces of Albania, Macedonia, and Thrace, on the grounds of ethnic nationalism. Initially, with Russia acting as an intermediary, agreements were concluded between Serbia and Bulgaria in March 1912, and between Greece and Bulgaria in May 1912. Montenegro subsequently concluded agreements between Serbia and Bulgaria in October 1912. The Serbian-Bulgarian agreement specifically called for the partition of Macedonia, which was the chief casus belli of the First Balkan War. The main cause of the Second Balkan War was the disputes between the former Balkan allies over their newly gained territories; this then gave the Turks an opportunity to take back some of their lost territories in Thrace. The political repercussions of the Balkan Wars led to the coup of 1913, and the subsequent rule of the Three Pashas.
Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) at the trenches of Gallipoli (1915)
The Ottoman Empire took part in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I, under the terms of the Ottoman-German Alliance. The Ottomans managed to win important victories in the early years of the war, particularly at the Battle of Gallipoli and the Siege of Kut; but there were setbacks as well, such as the disastrous Caucasus Campaign against the Russians. The Russian Revolution of 1917 gave the Ottomans the opportunity to regain lost ground and Ottoman forces managed to take Azerbaijan in the final stages of the war, but the Empire was forced to cede these gains at the end of World War I. A significant event in this conflict was the creation of an Armenian resistance movement in the province of Van. The core Armenian resistance group formed an independent provisional government in May 1915, prompting the Ottoman government to accuse the Armenians of being in collaboration with the invading Russian forces in eastern Anatolia, against their native state. The Armenian militia and Armenian volunteer units were also part of this Armenian national liberation movement. At the end of 1917 the Armenian Revolutionary Federation formed the Democratic Republic of Armenia. The eventual Ottoman defeat came from a combination of coordinated attacks on strategic targets by British forces commanded by Edmund Allenby and the Arab Revolt of 1916-1918.
During the first World War, the Ottoman government also faced difficulties on the home front. There were isolated Armenian rebellions in eastern Anatolia that led to the April 24 circular and then the Tehcir Law deportations between June 1 1915 and February 8 1916. An estimated 1.5 million ethnic Armenians died during this period, which most academics refer to as the Armenian Genocide. Typically this is considered to be the first genocide of the 20th century and the second most studied case of genocide, after the Holocaust. Turkish authorities, however, do not believe the term genocide applies. The Turkish government does not believe that the Tehcir Law was the main contribution to Armenian deaths during the first World War. The claim that Teşkilat-ı Mahsusa or the Special Organization committed an organized crime against the Armenian people is also disputed, though the poor conditions of the Armenians (and other Christians in general) as well as some Muslims were not. In addition to any deliberate policy, fighting between Kurds and Armenians along with the Caucasus Campaign of the World War caused trouble for both the Armenian and Muslim populations of the region. The Turkish rejection of the genocide is widely viewed by western scholars as historical revisionism and is often compared to Holocaust denial. See the main Armenian Genocide article for more information on the dispute.
Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire happened in the aftermath of the WWI. The initial ceasefire agreement was the Armistice of Mudros; under the terms of the subsequent Treaty of Sèvres, the empire was to submit to a complete partition of its Middle Eastern territories under the mandates of Britain and France, cede the Turkish Mediterranean coast to Italy, the Turkish Aegean coast to Greece, cede the Turkish Straits and Sea of Marmara to the Allied powers as an international zone, and recognize a large Republic of Armenia in eastern Anatolia (in an area which was mostly inhabited by Turks and Kurds). The terms of this treaty were later superseded by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne. Britain obtained virtually everything it had sought under the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement it had made with France in 1916 for the partitioning of the Middle East. The other powers of the Triple Entente, however, soon became entangled in the Turkish War of Independence.
The Turkish War of Independence was a response to the actions of the victorious Allies, in particular the harsh terms of the peace settlement. Turkish nationalists organized a Turkish national movement under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk). The establishment of the Turkish national movement resulted in the creation of the Grand National Assembly (Büyük Millet Meclisi) in Ankara on 23 April 1920, which refused to recognize the Ottoman government in Istanbul and the invading forces in Turkey, raised a "people's army" and expelled the invading Greek, Italian and French forces. They took back the Turkish provinces which were given to the Republic of Armenia with the Treaty of Sèvres, and threatened the British forces controlling the Turkish Straits. Turkish revolutionaries eventually freed the Turkish Straits and Istanbul, and abolished the Ottoman sultanate on 1 November 1922. The last sultan, Mehmed VI Vahdettin (1918-1922), left the country on November 17, 1922, and the Republic of Turkey was officially declared with the Treaty of Lausanne on 29 October 1923. The Caliphate was constitutionally abolished several months later, on 3 March 1924. the Sultan and his family were declared persona non grata of Turkey and exiled. Fifty years later, in 1974, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey granted descendants of the former dynasty the right to acquire Turkish citizenship. Ertuğrul Osman V.
Ultimately, the fall of the Ottoman Empire can be attributed to the failure of its economic structure; the size of the empire created difficulties in economically integrating its diverse regions. Also, the empire's communication technology was not developed enough to reach all territories. In many ways, the circumstances surrounding the Ottoman Empire's fall closely paralleled those surrounding the fall of the Roman Empire, particularly in terms of the ongoing tensions between the empire's different ethnic groups, and the various governments' inability to deal with these tensions. In the case of the Ottomans, the introduction of a parliamentary system during the Tanzimat proved to be too late to reverse the trends that had been set in place. Economic HistoryMain article: Economic history of the Ottoman Empire
Economical History
of Ottoman Empire
Enlargement Era
Reformation Era
See also Capitulations
The economic structure of the Empire was defined by its geopolitical structure. The Ottoman Empire stood between the West and the East, thus blocking the land route eastward and forcing Spanish and Portuguese navigators to set sail in search of a new route to the Orient. The empire controlled the spice route that Marco Polo once used. When Christopher Columbus first journeyed to America in 1492, the Ottoman Empire was at its zenith; an economic power which extended over three continents. Modern Ottoman studies think that the change in relations between the Ottomans and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in significance of the land routes to the East (as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and Mediterranean) as parallelling the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself. StateMain article: State organisation of the Ottoman Empire
State organisation
of Ottoman Empire
House of Osman
Grand Vizier(1320-1922)
Divan (1586? - 1908)
Imperial Government (1908 - 1920)
See also Subdivisions
In diplomatic circles, the empire was often referred to as the "Sublime Porte", a literal translation of the Ottoman Turkish Bâb-ı Âlî, which was the only gate of the imperial Topkapı Palace that was open to foreigners, and was where the sultan greeted ambassadors.
Ottoman bureaucracyUnlike many states, the Ottoman Empire was happy to use the talents of Greeks (and other Christians), Muslims and Jews, in revolutionizing its administrative system. The rapidly expanding empire utilized loyal, skilled subjects to manage the empire, whether Phanariot Greeks, Armenians, Serbs, Bosniaks, Hungarians or others. This eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the empire, which was initially undertaken in the Greek language to the west, using the Greek subjects. Like the Byzantines before them, the Ottomans practiced a system in which the state had control over the clergy. The nomadic Turkic forms of land tenure were largely retained —with a number of unique adjustments— in the Ottoman period. Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic Iran continued to be important in Ottoman administrative circles. In the Ottoman judiciary, for example, the courts were run by Kadı, i.e. religious judges appointed by the sultan who exercised direct control over members of the religious establishment. Ultimately, the Ottoman administrative system was a blend of influences derived from the Turks, the Byzantines, and the Islamic world.
The Ottomans were primarily administrators and not producers, in the sense that the empire did not employ a program of economic exploitation (as did the colonial empires of the modern European states). Its economic outlook (fiscalism) stressed abundance and regulated prices within the marketplace to ensure social stability, and the state never developed a Western mercantile outlook of maximum production, leaving commerce very largely in the hands of the non-Muslim population. According to Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims and to ensure security and harmony within its borders within the overarching context of orthodox Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty.
House of Osman
Further information: Ottoman Dynasty, House of Osman
The Ottoman sultan, also known as the pâdişâh (or "lord of kings"), served as the empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control.
Throughout Ottoman history, however —despite the supreme de jure authority of the sultans and the occasional exercise of de facto authority by Grand Viziers— there were many instances in which local governors acted independently, and even in opposition to the ruler. On eleven occasions, the sultan was deposed because he was perceived by his enemies as a threat to the state. New sultans were always chosen from among the sons of the previous sultan, but there was a strong educational system in place that was geared towards eliminating the unfit and establishing support amongst the ruling elite for the son before he was actually crowned. There were only two attempts in the whole of Ottoman history to unseat the ruling Osmanlı dynasty, both failures, which is suggestive of a political system which for an extended period was able to manage its revolutions without unnecessary instability.
Imperial Harem
Main article: Imperial Harem
The Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. It was ruled by the Valide Sultan (also known as the Baş Kadın, or "Chief Lady"), mother of the reigning sultan, who held supreme power over the Harem and thus a powerful position in the court. On occasion, the Valide Sultan would become involved in state politics and through her influence could diminish the power and position of the sultan. For a period of time beginning in the 16th century and extending into the 17th, the women of the Harem effectively controlled the state in what was termed the "Sultanate of Women" (Kadınlar Saltanatı).
The harem had its own internal organization and order of formulating policies. Beneath the Valide Sultan in the hierarchy was the Haseki Sultan, the mother of the sultan's first-born son, who had the best chance of becoming the next Valide Sultan. The sultan also had four other official wives, who were each called Haseki Kadın. Next in rank below the sultan's wives were his eight favourite concubines (ikbâls or hâs odalıks), and then the other concubines whom the sultan favoured and who were termed gözde. Next in rank were the concubines of other court officials. Pupils (acemî) and novices (câriye or şâhgird) were younger women who were either waiting to be married off to someone or who had not yet graduated out of the Harem School.
Palace schools
The palace schools were where young male Christian slaves (devşirme), taken as tribute from conquered Christian lands, were trained. There were palace schools in the old palace in Edirne, one in the Galata Palace north of the Istanbul's Golden Horn, and one in Ibrahim Pasha Palace in the Hippodrome area of Istanbul. The boys would graduate from these schools after seven years, and were then ready to become servants to the sultan or other notables, to serve in the Six Divisions of Cavalry, or to serve as Janissaries. Some of the most talented devşirme would come to Topkapı Palace, where they were trained for high positions within the Ottoman court or military.
The Divan (Council)
Further information: Divan, Grand Vizier, Vizier
Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, he had a number of advisors and ministers. The most powerful of these were the viziers of the Divan, led by the Grand Vizier. The Divan was a council where the viziers met and debated the politics of the empire. It was the Grand Vizier's duty to inform the sultan of the opinion of the divan. The sultan often took his viziers' advice, but he by no means had to obey the Divan. The Divan consisted of three viziers in the 14th century; by the 17th century, the number had grown to eleven, four of whom served as Viziers of the Dome (the most important ministers after the Grand Vizier).
Imperial Government
Main article: Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire
Further information: Subdivisions of the Ottoman Empire, List of Ottoman Grand Viziers
Bâb-ı Âlî, the "Sublime Porte"
Though the state apparatus of the Ottoman Empire underwent many reforms during its long history, a number of its basic structures remained essentially the same. Chief among these was the primacy of the sultan. Despite important decisions usually being made by the Divan, ultimate authority always rested with the sultan.
The Divan, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a Beylik, was composed of the elders of the tribe. Its composition was later modified to include military officers and local elites (such as religious and political advisors). These individuals became known as viziers. Later still, beginning in the year 1320, a Grand Vizier (or Sadrazam) was appointed in order to assume certain of the sultan's responsibilities. The Sublime Porte, which became synonymous with the Ottoman government, was in fact the gate to the Grand Vizier's headquarters, and the place where the sultan formally greeted foreign ambassadors. At times throughout Ottoman history, the authority of the Grand Vizier was to equal (and on some occasions even surpass) that of the sultan.
After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy without executive powers, and a parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces.
At the height of its power, the Ottoman Empire contained 29 provinces, in addition to the tributary principalities of Moldavia, Transylvania, and Wallachia.
Insignia
Further information: Tughra, Ottoman Flag
The Tughra were calligraphic monograms, or signatures, of the Ottoman Sultans, of which there were 35. Carved on the Sultan's seal, they bore the names of the Sultan and his father. The prayer/statement “ever victorious” was also present in most. The earliest belonged to Orhan Gazi. The ornately stylized Tughra spawned a branch of Ottoman-Turkish calligraphy. SocietyMain article: Society structure of the Ottoman Empire
One of the successes of the Ottoman Empire was the unity that it brought about among its highly varied populations. While the main reason for this was the Empire's military strength and use of intimidation as a means of control in newly conquered territories, it may also be ascribed in part to the laws of Islam, which stated that Muslims, Christians, and Jews —who constituted the vast majority of the Ottoman population— were all related in that they were "People of the Book" (Ahl al-Kitâb). As early as the reign of Mehmed II, extensive rights were granted to Phanariot Greeks, and many Jews were invited to settle in Ottoman territory.
Concept of Nation
Main article: Millet (Ottoman Empire)
See also: Ottomanism
Under Ottoman rule the major religious groups were allowed to establish their own communities, called millets, each retaining its own religious laws, traditions, and language under the general protection of the sultan. Millets were led by religious chiefs, who served as secular as well as religious leaders and thus had a substantial interest in the continuation of Ottoman rule. After conquering Constantinople, Mehmed II used his army to restore its physical structure. Old buildings were repaired, streets, aqueducts, and bridges were constructed, sanitary facilities were modernised, and a vast supply system was established to provide for the city's inhabitants.
Ultimately, the Ottoman Empire's relatively high degree of tolerance for ethnic differences proved to be one of its greatest strengths in integrating the new regions until the rise of nationalism (this non-assimilative policy became a weakness during the dissolution of the empire that neither the first or second parliaments could successfully address).
"...the Ottoman family was ethnically Turkish in its origins, as were some of its supporters and subjects. But ... the dynasty immediately lost this "Turkish" ethnic identification through intermarriage with many different ethnicities. As for a "Turkish empire", state power relied on a similarly heterogeneous mix of peoples. The Ottoman empire succeeded because it incorporated the energies of the vastly varied peoples it encountered, quickly transcending its roots in the Turkish nomadic migrations from Central Asia into the Middle East."[2]
Slavery
Further information: Devshirmeh
The Ottomans came from a nomadic people among whom slavery was little practised. Also, from the Islamic perspective, the Qur'an specifically states "everyone is the same",[3] although in practice there were cultural differences in how this was interpreted (Islam and Slavery covers these perspectives). The Ottomans did not approve of slavery in their empire. However, Ottoman policies were based on a millet perspective in which each millet had the right to govern their own domain, so there were places in the Ottoman Empire where slavery existed. Trafficking in slaves was expressively forbidden by the Ottoman application of sharia, or Islamic law. For example, by the terms of the sharia, any slaves who were taken could not be kept as slaves if they converted to Islam. It was, in fact, considered an insult to term an Ottoman man as a slave-master, and there were incidents in which Ottomans responded unsympathetically to any who even mentioned the idea of slavery to them.[4]
Slavery was usually confined to domestic services, including odalıks. Many were captives of war and cross-border raids. In the Mediterranean, such enslaved captives manned the galley oars in the navy. By the era of Tanzimat, the Ottoman Empire aimed to gradually limit the scope of slavery. However, slavery was not formally abolished until the proclamation of the Republic.
The Devşirme system could be considered as a form of slavery, in that the Sultans had absolute power over its members. However, the 'slave' or kul (subject) of the Sultan had high status within Ottoman society, and this group included the highest officers of state and the military elite, all well remunerated, so to consider them 'slaves' (in the way the term is generally understood in the West) is misleading.
Rural slavery was largely a Caucasian phenomenon, carried to Anatolia and Rumelia after the Circassian migration in 1864. Conflicts emerged within the immigrant community and the Ottoman Establishment, at times, intervened on the side of the slaves.[5] CultureMain article: Culture of the Ottoman Empire
Further information: Ottoman poetry, Prose of the Ottoman Empire, Costumes of the Ottoman Empire
Istanbul ParkMany different cultures lived under the umbrella of the Ottoman Empire, and as a result, a specifically "Ottoman" culture can be difficult to define. To some extent, there existed a Turkish Ottoman culture, a Greek Ottoman culture, an Armenian Ottoman culture, and so on. However, there was also, to a great extent, a specific melding of cultures that can be said to have reached its highest levels among the Ottoman elite, who were composed of a myriad of different ethnic and religious groups.
One of the roots of Ottoman culture comes from the Oghuz Turks with their Central Asian Turkic nomadic culture. As the Oghuz passed into Anatolia through Persia over a period of a few hundred years they absorbed many elements of Persian culture. Following Sultan Mehmed II's capture of Constantinople (later named Istanbul) in 1453, many aspects of Byzantine— and, more broadly, European— culture began to be integrated into Ottoman culture. As the empire expanded in subsequent years, even more cultures were brought into this mix, enriching it still further.
This Ottoman multicultural perspective is reflected in their policies. One of the reasons that the Ottoman Empire lasted as long as it did was its tolerant attitude, originating from the Ottomans nomadic inheritance, in comparison to the attitude prevailing elsewhere in medieval times (east and west). This meant that the Ottoman State pursued multi-cultural and multi-religious policies. (Two examples of this can be seen in the Ottoman justice system and the independent regional governors.) As the Ottomans moved further west, the Ottoman leaders absorbed some of the culture of conquered regions. Intercultural marriages also played their part in creating the characteristic Ottoman elite culture. When compared to Turkish folk culture, the influence of these new cultures in creating the culture of the Ottoman elite is very apparent.
Architecture
Main article: Ottoman architecture
Architectural plan of in Thessaloniki dated 1444
Ottoman architecture was influenced by Seljuk, Persian, Byzantine, Greek and Islamic architecture, but came to develop a style all of its own. The years 1300-1453 (Rise Period) constitute the early or first Ottoman period, when Ottoman art was in search of new ideas. The years 1453-1600, known as the classical period, coinciding with the Empire's expansion, is the period when Ottoman art was at its most confident. During the years of the stagnation period, Ottoman architecture moved away from this style however. During the Tulip Era, it was under the influence of the highly ornamented styles of Western Europe; Baroque, Rococo, Empire and other styles intermingled.
The place of Turkish art within Islamic Art as a whole has long been a subject of controversy. In those regions in which Islamic Art developed it was founded on an already on an established basis of pre-Islamic civilization, the most important of these being the Late Antique and Christian cultures of Syria, and the Sasanian arts of Iran. The Arabic, Persian and Turkish elements added to these formed the basis of the development of Islamic Art. The majority of the states in the Islamic world were founded by the Turks and for nearly one thousand years, from the 9th century onwards the Turks, apart from some minor instances, remained the dominant element in the Islamic world.
The development of Turkish art was influenced by the arts of a number of different countries. The tomb of Ismail the Samanid at Bukhara dating from the first half the roth century played an important role, as a monument of revolutionary design derived from the Sasanian fire-temples, Karakhanid and Seljuk tomb design, and on top of this, the influence of the external appearance of Buddhist stupas. The plan of the Ghaznevid palaces is derived from the Sasanids, but also shows the influence of Abbasid palace architecture. Other architectural forms such as the iwan, the squinch and the dome are also forms derived from the Sasanids. But in spite of this, in all monuments of Turkish art, in whatever geographical region they may be, there is a distinctive style clearly separate from any of the styles which influenced it.
Concepts of Ottoman architecture mainly circle around the mosque. The mosque was integral to society, city planning and communal life. Besides the mosque, it is also possible to find good examples of Ottoman architecture in soup kitchens, theological schools, hospitals, Turkish baths and tombs.
Examples of Ottoman architecture of the classical period, aside from Istanbul and Edirne, can also be seen in Egypt, Eritrea, Tunisia, Algiers, the Balkans and Hungary, where mosques, bridges, fountains and schools were built.
Language
Main article: Ottoman Turkish language
See also: Turkish language
Ethnic groups with their own languages (e.g. Greeks, Jews-who often spoke Ladino, etc.) continued to speak them within their families and neighborhoods. In villages where two or more populations lived together, the inhabitants would often speak each other's language. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages, some Ottoman or Persian if they were educated, and some Arabic if they were Muslim. In the last two centuries, French and English emerged as popular languages. The elite learned French at school, and used European products as a fashion statement. The use of Turkish grew steadily under the Ottomans but they were still interested in their two other official languages so they kept them with a new limited usage: Persian for literature and Arabic solely for religious rites. Many famous Persian poets emerged at this time.
Ottoman Turkish was a variety of Turkish, highly influenced by Persian and Arabic. Ottomans had three influential languages; Turkish, Persian, Arabic but they did not have a parallel status. Throughout the vast Ottoman bureaucracy and, in particularly, within the Ottoman court in later times, a version of Turkish was spoken, albeit with a vast mixture of both Arabic and Persian grammar and vocabulary. If the basic grammar was still largely Turkish, the inclusion of virtually any word in Arabic or Persian in Ottoman made it a language which was essentially incomprehensible to any Ottoman subject who had not mastered Arabic, Persian or both. The two varieties of the language became so differentiated that ordinary people had to hire special "request-writers" (arzıhâlcis) in order to be able to communicate with the government.
Music
Main article: Ottoman classical music
Further information: Janissary Music, Roma music, Belly dance, Turkish folk music
As music was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite, a number of the Ottoman sultans were accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as Selim III, whose compositions are still frequently performed today. Due to a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music, and folk music.
Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of Byzantine music, Arabic music, and Persian music. Compositionally, it is organised around rhythmic units called usul, which are somewhat similar to meter in Western music, and melodic units called makam, which bear some resemblance to Western musical modes. The instruments used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the saz, the bağlama, the kemence), other Middle Eastern instruments (the ud, the tanbur, the kanun, the ney), and— later in the tradition— Western instruments (the violin and the piano).
In the provinces, several different kinds of Folk music were created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are: Balkan-Thracian Turkus, North-Eastern Turkus(Laz), Aegean Turkus, Central Anatolian Turkus, Eastern Anatolian Turkus, and Caucasian Turkus. There is no separate style for Istanbul, because Turkish Classical Music was preferred here.
Cuisine
Main article: Ottoman cuisine
When one talks of Ottoman cuisine, one refers to the cuisine of the Capital - Istanbul, and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that all the populations enjoyed. This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. The creations of the Ottoman Palace's kitchens filtered to the population, for instance through Ramadan events, and through the cooking at Yalis of Pashas, and from here on spread to the rest of the population. LifestyleMain article: Lifestyle of the Ottoman Empire
Galata Bridge in Istanbul, 1878The Ottoman court life in many aspects assembled ancient traditions of the Persian Shahs, but had many Greek and European influences.
The court (Topkapı)
Main article: Culture of the Ottoman court
Further information: Harem (household) and Topkapı Palace
The culture that evolved around the court was known as the Ottoman Way. To get a high position in the empire, one had to be skilled in the way. This included knowing the languages Persian, Arabic and Ottoman Turkish, and how to behave in different settings: in court, in front of the sultan, and on formal and religious occasions. The Ottoman Way also separated the nobles from the lower classes. Peasants and villagers were called Turks, while nobles were called Ottomans.
See also: Seraglio.
The provincial capitals
Apart from the Ottoman court, there were also large metropolitan centers where the Ottoman influence expressed itself with a diversity similar to metropolises of today: Sarajevo, Skopje, Thessaloniki, Dimashq, Baghdad, Beirut, Jerusalem, Makkah were other cities that had their own examples of Ottoman diversity, with their own small versions of Provincial Administration replicating the culture of the Ottoman court locally. ReligionFurther information: History of the Jews in Turkey, History of the Armenians in Ottoman Empire
Following the fall of Constantinople, in 1453, Mehmed II did not disband the Greek Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarchate, but instead brought it under close control by installing Gennadius II Scholarius as the patriarch—after receiving from him a hefty fee[6]—and thus establishing him as the ethnarch of the Millet of Rum; that is, the Orthodox Christian subjects of the empire, regardless of their ethnicity. Under the millet system—which applied to other non-Muslim religious groups as well—people were considered subjects, or rather raya (i.e. cattle), of the empire but were not subject to the Muslim faith or Muslim law. The Orthodox millet, for instance, was still officially legally subject to Justinian's Code, which had been in effect in the Byzantine Empire for 900 years. Also, as the largest group of non-Muslim subjects (or zimmi) of the Islamic Ottoman state, the Orthodox millet was granted a number of special privileges in the fields of politics and commerce{citation needed}, in addition to having to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects.
Similar millets were established for the Ottoman Jewish community, who were under the authority of the Haham Başı or Ottoman Chief Rabbi; the Armenian Orthodox community, who were under the authority of a head bishop; and a number of other religious communities as well.
Adoption of Islam
Further information: Ottoman Caliphate
Before adopting Islam—a process that was greatly facilitated by the Abbasid victory at the 751 AD Battle of Talas, which ensured Abbasid influence in Central Asia—the Turkic peoples practised a variety of shamanism. After this battle, many of the various Turkic tribes—including the Oghuz Turks, who were the ancestors of both the Seljuks and the Ottomans—gradually converted to Islam, and brought the religion with them to Anatolia beginning in the 11th century AD.
State and Religion
Main article: State and Religion (Ottoman Empire)
Largely for practical reasons, the Ottoman Empire was, in a broad sense, tolerant towards its non-Muslim subjects; it did not, for instance, forcibly convert them to Islam. The sultans took their primary duty to be service to the interests of the state, which could not survive without taxes and a strong administrative system. The state's relationship with the Greek Orthodox Church, for example, was largely peaceful, and the church's structure was kept intact and largely left alone but under close control and scrutiny until the Greek War of Independence of 1821–1831 and, later in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the rise of the Ottoman constitutional monarchy, which was driven to some extent by nationalistic currents, tried to be balanced with ottomanism. Other churches, like the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, were dissolved and placed under the jurisdiction of the Greek Orthodox Church. On the other hand, the empire often served as a refuge for the persecuted and exiled Jews of Europe; for example, following the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492, Sultan Beyazid II welcomed them into Ottoman lands. LawFurther information: Mecelle
An Ottoman trial, 1877 (see image detail for explanation)Legally, the Ottoman Empire was organised around a system of local jurisprudence; that is, local legal systems which did not conflict with the state as a whole were largely left alone. The Ottojon system had three court systems: one for Muslims, which was run by the kadıs, or Islamic judges; one for non-Muslims, involving appointed Jews and Christians ruling over their respective religious areas; and one which regulated trade and had its origins in the empire's capitulation agreements with foreign powers. The entire system was regulated from above by means of the administrative Kanun, i.e. laws.
These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive in nature: for instance, the Islamic courts—which were the empire's primary courts—could also be used to settle a trade conflict or disputes between litigants of differing religions, and Jews and Christians often went to them so as to obtain a more forceful ruling on an issue. Women nearly always choose the Islamic courts, as these courts tended to be fairer towards them and to give them more just recompense.
Throughout the theatre, there were two systems of law in effect: one was the Islamic Sharia law system, and the other was the Turkish Kanun system based upon the Turkic Yasa and Tore which was developed in the pre-Islamic era. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors. The Islamic Sharia law system had been developed from a combination of the Qur'ān; the Hadīth, or words of the prophet Muhammad; ijmā', or consensus of the members of the Muslim community; qiyas, a system of analogical reasoning from previous precedents; and local customs. The kanun law system, on the other hand, was the secular law of the sultan, and dealt with issues not clearly addressed by the sharia system. Both systems were taught at the empire's law schools, which were in Istanbul and Bursa. MilitaryMain article: Military of the Ottoman Empire
Further information: Sipahi, Akinci, Timariot, Janissary, Nizam-ı Cedid
The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. In the Ottoman army, light cavalry long formed the core and they were given fiefs called Tımars. Cavalry used bows and short swords and made use of nomad tactics similar to those of the Mongol Empire. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to employ muskets. The modernisation of the Ottoman empire in the 19th century started with the military. This was the first institution to hire foreign experts and which sent their officer corps for training in western European countries. Technology and new weapons were transferred to the empire, such as German and British guns, air force and a modern navy. References and further readingCleveland, William L. "The Ottoman and Safavid Empires: A New Imperial Synthesis" in A History of the Modern Middle East. Westview Press, 2004. pp. 37–56. ISBN 0-8133-4048-9.
Creasy, Sir Edward Shepherd. History of the Ottoman Turks: From the beginning of their empire to the present time. R. Bentley and Son, 1877.
Finkel, Caroline. Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923. John Murray, 2005. ISBN 0-7195-5513-2.
Guilmartin, John F., Jr. "Ideology and Conflict: The Wars of the Ottoman Empire, 1453–1606", Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 18, No. 4. (Spring, 1988), pp. 721–747.
Imber, Colin. The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. ISBN 0-333-61386-4.
Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans: Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. Cambridge University Press, 1983. ISBN 0-521-25249-0.
Lybyer, Albert Howe. The Government of the Ottoman Empire in the Time of Suleiman the Magnificent. AMS Press, 1978. ISBN 0-404-14681-3.
Mansel, Philip. Istanbul: City of the World's Desire, 1453–1924. Gardners Books, 1997. ISBN 0-14-026246-6.
McCarthy, Justin. The Ottoman Peoples and the End of Empire. Hodder Arnold, 2001. ISBN 0-340-70657-0.
Necipoğlu, Gülru. Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power: The Topkapi Palace in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. MIT Press, 1991. ISBN 0-262-14050-0.
Quataert, Donald. The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-54782-2.
Notes
1. ^ Other names of the Empire: “Âl-i Osman”; “Devlet-i Âliye”, “Devlet-i Ebed-Müddet”, “Memâlik-i Mahrûse” (The Well-Protected Domains), “Memâlik-i Mahrûse-i Osmanî”
2. ^ Donald Quataert, 2
3. ^ O mankind! We created you from a single soul, male and female, and made you into nations and tribes, so that you may come to know one another. Truly, the most honoured of you in God's sight is the greatest of you in piety. God is All-Knowing, All-Aware. -- 49:13
4. ^ The bulk of this section uses information from the article "Slavery in the Ottoman Empire".
5. ^ Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda Kölelik
6. ^ Mansel, 10
دولت عليه عثماني?
Ottoman Empire Empire
←
1299 — 1922 →
Flag
Late Ottoman flag (1793) Coat of arms
Motto: دولت ابد مدت
Devlet-i Ebed-müddet
("The Eternal State")
Anthem: Ottoman imperial anthem
Location of Ottoman EmpireAt the height of its power (1683)
Capital Söğüt (1299-1326)
Bursa (1326-1365)
Edirne (1365-1453)
Constantinople (Istanbul) (1453-1922)
Government Monarchy|Empire}}
Sultans
- 1281–1326 Osman I
- 1918–1922 Mehmed VI
Grand Viziers
- 1320-1331 Alaeddin Pasha
- 1920-1922 Ahmed Tevfik Pasha
History
- Foundation 1299
- Partition November 17, 1922
Area
- 1914 km2
sq mi
Population
- 1453 est.
- 1878 est.
- 1914 est.
Density /km²
/sq mi
The Ottoman Empire (Ottoman Turkish: دولت عليه عثمانيه - Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye[1]; literally, "The Sublime Ottoman State"), also known in the West as the Turkish Empire, existed from AD 1299 to AD 1922. At the height of its power in the 16th and 17th centuries, the tri-continental Ottoman Empire controlled much of Southeastern Europe, the Middle East and North Africa, stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar (and in 1553 the Atlantic coast of North Africa beyond Gibraltar) in the west to the Caspian Sea and Persian Gulf in the east, from the edge of Austria and Slovakia and the hinterland beyond Ukraine in the north to Sudan and Yemen in the south. The empire was at the center of interactions between the Eastern and Western worlds for six centuries.
With Istanbul (the Ottoman Turkish name of old Constantinople) as its capital, it was the final great Mediterranean Empire and heir to the legacy of Rome and Byzantium in many ways. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman Empire was among the most powerful states of the world, threatening the powers of eastern Europe with its steady advance through the Balkans up until 1683. Its navy was a powerful force in the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, Red Sea, Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. On several occasions, the Ottoman army invaded central Europe, laying siege to Vienna in 1529 and finally battle of Vienna in 1683 in an attempt to conquer the Habsburgs, and was repulsed only by coalitions of European powers on the sea and on land. It was the only Eastern power to seriously challenge the rising power of Western Europe between the 15th and 20th centuries.
The Ottoman Empire steadily declined during the 19th century, and met its demise at the beginning of the 20th century after its defeat in World War I in the Middle Eastern theatre with the other Central Powers. In the aftermath of the war, the Ottoman government collapsed and the victorious powers partitioned the Empire. Subsequent years saw the creation of new states from the remnants of the Empire; at present 39 nation-states (40 including the disputed Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus) have emerged from the former Ottoman territories. In Anatolia, the historical center of the Empire, an emergent Turkish national movement expelled invading forces during the Turkish War of Independence, which concluded with the birth of the Republic of Turkey. The new Republic declared the Sultan and his family, the Ottoman Dynasty, as persona non grata of Turkey. Fifty years later, in 1974, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey granted descendants of the former dynasty the right to acquire Turkish citizenship. History History of the
Ottoman Empire
Periods:
Rise (1299–1453)
Growth (1453–1683)
Stagnation (1683–1827)
Decline (1828–1908)
Dissolution (1908–1922)
See also:
Click
Fall of Constantinople
Tulip Era
Tanzimat era
First Constitutional Era
Second Constitutional Era
European Wars
Russian Wars
Near East Wars
Further information: Timeline of the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Archives
The history of the Ottoman Empire spans more than six centuries, and primary documentation of the empire's relations with other powers is to be found in the archives of thirty-nine nations. Earlier historiography of the empire was based largely on analysis of Ottoman military victories and defeats; current approaches take a wider perspective, the scope of which includes the social dynamics of territorial growth and dissolution, and examination of economic factors and their role in the empire's eventual stagnation and decline.
An examination of Ottoman history from a political and military viewpoint will be presented here; a socioeconomic analysis is treated in separate articles, divided between two periods, the classic period (sometimes referred to as the "era of enlargement"), and the reform period (also called "the era of Westernization").
Origins
Main article: Anatolian Turkish Beyliks
Further information: Turkic peoples, Turkic migration and Oghuz Turks
The Ottoman Empire in its core, the Kai tribe of Oğuz Turks, was part of the westward Turkic migrations from Central Asia that began during the 10th century. Seljuk Turks settled in Persia during this period. The Seljuq dynasty began to push west into Anatolia at the beginning of the 11th century. The Suleyman Shah, grandfather of Osman I, was drowned in the river Euphrates and his tomb resides in current Syria. This movement brought them into conflict with the Byzantine Empire.
The permanent foothold in Anatolia, the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate of the Seljuk Turks, was established a after a historic victory at the Battle of Manzikert against Byzantine Empire in 1071. Under the suzerainty of the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate, the leader Ertuğrul, father of Osman I received a western fringe after backing the Seljuks in a losing border skirmish. The Seljuk system offered the Beylik protection from outsiders, and also allowed it to develop its own internal structure. Ertuğrul with the position on the far western fringe of the Seljuk state enabled him to build up the military power through co-operation with other nations living in western Anatolia, many of whom were Christian.
The Ottoman Beylik (turkish: Osmanoğlu) passed over to another stage, the Anatolian Turkish Beyliks, with the demise of the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate. Following the Mongol invasion of Anatolia in the 13th century, the sultanate collapsed and its territory was divided among a number of Turkish principalities known as Beylik. It became vassals of the Il Khanate of the Mongols. The name Ottoman derives from Osman I (Arabic: Uthman), son of Ertuğrul, who became the first Bey when he declared the independence of the "Ottoman state" in 1299.
Rise (1299–1453)
Main article: Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Military &
Political History
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Time Span 154 years
# Sultans 8
Soc-Econ Enlargement
See also
Osman I, while the other Turkish Beyliks were preoccupied with internal conflicts, was able to extend the frontiers of Ottoman settlement towards the edge of the Byzantine Empire. He moved the Ottoman capital to Bursa, and shaped the early political development of the nation. Given the nickname "Kara" for his courage, Osman I was admired as a strong and dynamic ruler long after his death, as evident in the centuries-old Turkish phrase, "May he be as good as Osman." His reputation has also been burnished by the medieval Turkish story known as "Osman's Dream", a foundation myth in which the young Osman was inspired to conquest by a prescient vision of empire.
This period saw the creation of a formal Ottoman government whose institutions would remain largely unchanged for almost four centuries. In contrast to many contemporary states, the Ottoman bureaucracy tried to avoid military rule. The government also utilized the legal entity known as the millet, under which religious and ethnic minorities were able to manage their own affairs with substantial independence from central control.
In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. After defeat in Battle of Plocnik, the Turkish victory at the Battle of Kosovo effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, and paved the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe. The Ottomans needed almost 100 years to defeat Serbia, which would finally fall in 1459. With the extension of Turkish dominion into the Balkans, the strategic conquest of Constantinople became a crucial objective. The city was eventually taken during the rule of Mehmed II, who was only 12 years old when he became sultan for the first time. Mehmed II reorganized the structure of both the state and the military, and demonstrated his military prowess by capturing Constantinople (see: Istanbul (Etymology)) on May 29, 1453. This event marked the final defeat and collapse of the Byzantine state, and the city became the new capital of the Ottoman Empire.
Growth (1453–1683)
Main article: Growth of the Ottoman Empire
Military &
Political History
Growth of the Ottoman Empire
Time Span 230 years
# Sultans 11
Soc-Econ Enlargement
See also
Ottoman Empire, 1299–1683This period in Ottoman history can roughly be divided into two distinct eras: a golden era of territorial, economic, and cultural growth prior to 1566, followed by an era of relative military and political stagnation.
Following the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman Empire entered a long period of conquest and expansion, extending its borders deep into Europe and North Africa. The Empire prospered under the rule of a series of committed and effecitve sultans, culminating in the rule of Süleyman I (the Magnificent). Conquests on land were driven by the discipline and innovation of the Turkish military; and on the sea, the Ottoman navy established the empire as a great trading power. The state also flourished economically thanks to its control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia.
However, Süleyman's death in 1566 marked the beginning of an era of diminishing territorial gains. The rise of western European nations as naval powers and the development of alternative sea routes from Europe to Asia and the New World damaged the Ottoman economy. The effective military and bureaucratic structures of the previous century also came under strain during a protracted period of misrule by weak Sultans. But in spite of these difficulties, the empire remained a major expansionist power until the Battle of Vienna in 1683, the first major Ottoman defeat on European soil.
Expansion and apogee (1453–1566)
First Siege of Vienna in 1529The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 cemented the status of the empire as the preeminent power in southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. Over the next century, the empire would extend its influence into the heart of the Arab world and come to dominate southeast Europe. Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the empire's eastern and southern frontiers by defeating the young Safavid Shah of Persia, Ismail I, in the Battle of Chaldiran. Selim I established Ottoman rule in Egypt, and created a naval presence on the Red Sea. Selim's successor, Süleyman the Magnificent (1520–1566), further expanded upon Selim's conquests. After capturing Belgrade in 1521, Süleyman conquered Kingdom of Hungary establishing Ottoman rule in the territory of present-day Hungary and other Central European territories, by winning the Battle of Mohacs in 1526. He then laid siege to Vienna in 1529, but failed to take the city after the onset of winter forced his retreat. During the reign of Süleyman, Transylvania, Walachia and, intermittently, Moldavia, became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. In the east, the Ottomans took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535, giving them control of Mesopotamia and naval access to the Persian Gulf.
Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha defeats the Allied European Fleet of Charles V under the command of Andrea Doria at the Battle of Preveza in 1538Under Selim and Süleyman, the empire became a dominant naval force, controlling much of the Mediterranean Sea. The exploits of the Ottoman admiral Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, who commanded the Turkish navy during Süleyman's reign, included a number of impressive military victories. Among these were the conquest of Tunis and Algeria from Spain; the evacuation of Muslims and Jews from Spain to the safety of Ottoman lands (particularly Salonica, Cyprus, and Constantinople) during the Spanish Inquisition; and the capture of Nice from the Holy Roman Empire in 1543. This last conquest occurred on behalf of France as a joint venture between the forces of the French king Francis I and those of Barbarossa. France and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to Hapsburg rule in southern and central Europe, became strong allies during this period. The alliance was economic as well as military, as the sultans granted France the right of trade within the empire without levy of taxation. In fact, the Ottoman Empire was by this time a significant and accepted part of the European political sphere, and entered into a military alliance with France, England and Holland against Habsburg Spain, Italy and Habsburg Austria.
As the 16th century progressed, Ottoman naval superiority was challenged by the upstart sea powers of western Europe, particularly Portugal, in the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean and the Spice Islands. With the Ottomans blockading sea-lanes to the East and South, the European powers were driven to find another way to the ancient Silk and Spice routes, now under absolute Ottoman control. On land, the empire was preoccupied by military campaigns in Austria-Hungary and Persia, two widely-separated theaters of war. The strain of these conflicts on the empire's resources, and the logistics of maintaining lines of supply and communication across such vast distances, ultimately rendered its sea efforts unsustainable and unsuccessful. Despite the Ottomans' strategic vision and partial success in global campaigning, the overriding military need for defense on the western and eastern frontiers of the empire eventually made effective long-term engagement elsewhere impossible.
Revolts and Revival (1566–1683)
Second Siege (Battle) of Vienna in 1683The latter half of the 16th century marked the start of European efforts to curb the Ottoman chokehold on overland trade routes. A number of western European states began to circumvent the Turkish trade monopoly by establishing their own naval routes to Asia. In southern Europe, a coalition of European trading powers on the Italian peninsula formed an alliance to weaken the Ottoman grip on the waters of the Mediterranean Sea. Their victory over the Ottomans at the naval Battle of Lepanto (1571) hastened the end of the empire's primacy in the Mediterranean; and in fact, this battle was considered by some earlier historians to signal the beginning of Ottoman decline.
By the end of the 16th century, the golden era of sweeping conquest and territorial expansion was over. The Hapsburg frontier in particular became a more or less permanent border until the 19th century, marked only by relatively minor battles concentrating on the possession of individual fortresses. This stalemate was partly a reflection of simple geographical limits: in the pre-mechanized age, Vienna marked the furthest point that an Ottoman army could march from Istanbul during the early-spring to late-autumn campaigning season. It also reflected the difficulties imposed on the empire by the need to maintain two separate fronts: one against the Austrians, and the other against a rival Islamic state, the Safavids of Persia.
On the battlefield, the Ottomans gradually fell behind the Europeans in military technology as the innovation which fed the empire's forceful expansion became stifled by growing religious and intellectual conservatism. Changes in European military tactics caused the once-feared Sipahi cavalry to lose its military relevance. Discipline and unit cohesion in the army also became a problem due to relaxations of recruitment policy and the growth of the Janissary corps at the expense of other military units.
Economically, the huge influx of Spanish silver from the New World caused a sharp devaluation of the Ottoman currency and rampant inflation. This had serious negative consequences at all levels of Ottoman society. The period was marked by widespread lawlessness and rebellion in Anatolia in the late 16th and early 17th centuries (commonly known as the Celali rebellions), and Janissary revolts that toppled several governments.
However, the 17th century was not simply an era of stagnation and decline, but also key period in which the Ottoman state and its structures began to adapt to new pressures and new realities, internal and external. The warrior sultan Murad IV (1612–1640), who recaptured Yerevan (1635) and Baghdad (1639) from the Safavids, is the only example in this era of a sultan who exercised strong political and military control of the empire. Notably, Murad IV was the last Ottoman emperor who went to war in front of his army. Modern historians point out that the relative ineffectiveness of the sultans after his reign led to the diffusion of power to lower levels of the government; at first to powerful members of the Harem, and later to a sequence of Grand Viziers. Several important leaders arose at this time, including the sternly reactionary Grand Vizier Mehmed Köprülü (1656-1661) and his more moderate son Fazıl Ahmed Koprülü (1661-1676). Under their leadership the state began to reassert itself with some vigor. Despite internal conflicts within the Ottoman bureaucracy, and between the bureaucracy and military, the 17th century saw the empire expand its frontiers to their furthest reach, with notable gains under the Köprülü administration in Crete, Southern Ukraine and Podolia.
The defeat of Ottoman forces led by Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha at the Second Siege of Vienna in 1683, at the hands of the combined armies of Poland and the Holy Roman Empire under Jan III Sobieski, was the decisive event that swung the balance of power in the region in favor of the European nations. Under the terms of the Treaty of Karlowitz, which ended the Great Turkish War in 1699, the Ottomans ceded nearly all of Ottoman Hungary, Transylvania, the Morea and Podolia to Austria and Poland. They also acknowledged, for the first time in their history, that the Austrian Empire could treat with them on equal terms.
Decline (1699–1908)
The long period of Ottoman decline is typically broken by historians into an era of failed reforms and a subsequent era of modernization. The military and political details of this period are covered in two separate articles: the stagnation of the Ottoman Empire (1699–1827), when the empire began to lose territory along its western borders, but managed to maintain its stature as a great regional power; and the decline of the Ottoman Empire (1828–1908), when the empire lost territory on all fronts, and there was administrative instability due to the breakdown of centralized government.
Reform (1699–1827)
Main article: Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire
Military &
Political History
Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire
Time Span 133 years
# Sultans 11
Soc-Econ
See also
Further wars were lost, and territories ceded, to Austria in the Balkans. Certain areas of the empire, such as Egypt and Algeria, became independent in all but name, and subsequently came under the influence of Britain and France. The 18th century saw centralized authority giving way to varying degrees of provincial autonomy enjoyed by local governors and leaders. A series of wars were fought between the Russian and Ottoman empires from the 17th to the 19th centuries. Ottoman science and technology had been highly regarded in medieval times, as a result of Ottoman scholars' synthesis of classical learning with Islamic philosophy and mathematics, and knowledge of such Chinese advances in technology as gunpowder and the magnetic compass. By this period though the influences had become regressive and conservative. The guilds of writers denounced the printing press as "the Devil's Invention", and were responsible for a 100-year lag between its invention by Johannes Gutenberg in Europe in 1450 and its introduction to the Ottoman society.
During the "Tulip Era" (or Lâle Devri in Turkish), named for Sultan Ahmed III's love of the tulip flower and its use to symbolize his peaceful reign, the empire's policy towards Europe underwent a shift. The region was peaceful between 1718–1730, after the Ottoman victory against Russia in the Pruth Campaign in 1712 and the subsequent Treaty of Passarowitz brought a period of pause in warfare. The empire began to improve the fortifications of cities bordering the Balkans to act as a defense against European expansionism. Other tentative reforms were also enacted: taxes were lowered; there were attempts to improve the image of the Ottoman state; and the first instances of private investment and entrepreneurship occurred.
Ottoman military reform efforts Sultan Selim III (1789-1807) made the first major attempts to modernize the army along European lines. These efforts, however, were hampered by reactionism, partly from the religious leadership, but primarily from the Janissary corps, who had become anarchic and ineffectual, jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic Mahmud II, who massacred the Janissary corps in 1826. Later on in Ottoman history there were educational and technological reforms, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as Istanbul Technical University; but decline continued despite these measures.
Modernization (1828–1908)
Main article: Decline of the Ottoman Empire
Military &
Political History
Decline of the Ottoman Empire
Time Span 82 years
# Sultans 5
Soc-Econ Reformation
See also
Mahmud II started the modernization of Turkey by preparing the Edict of Tanzimat in 1839 which had immediate effects such as European style clothing, architecture, legislation, institutional organization and land reform.
The period of the Ottoman Empire's decline was characterised by the reorganization and transformation of most of the empire's structures in an attempt to bolster the empire against increasingly powerful rivals.
The Tanzimat period (from Arabic Tanzîmât, meaning "reorganisation") lasted from 1839 to 1876. During this period, many significant changes were implemented: a fairly modern conscripted army was organized; the banking system was reformed; and the guilds were replaced with modern factories. Economically, the empire had difficulty in repaying its loans to European banks; at the same time, it faced military challenges in defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation: Egypt, for instance, was occupied by the French in 1798, while Cyprus was loaned to the British in 1878 in exchange of Britain's favours at the Congress of Berlin following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire at the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. In a significant shift in military and diplomatic policy, the empire ceased to enter conflicts on its own and began to forge alliances with European countries. There were a series of such alliances with France, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and Russia. As an example, in the Crimean War the Ottomans united with the British, French, and others against Russia.
The rise of nationalism swept through many countries during the 19th century, and the Ottoman Empire was not immune. A burgeoning national consciousness, together with a growing sense of ethnic nationalism, made nationalistic thought one of the most significant Western ideas imported by the Ottoman empire, as it was forced to deal with nationalism-related issues both within and beyond its borders. There was a significant increase in the number of revolutionary political parties. Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many far-reaching consequences during the 19th century and determined much of Ottoman policy during the early 20th century. Many Ottoman Turks questioned whether the policies of the state were to blame: some felt that the sources of ethnic conflict were external, and unrelated to issues of governance. While this era was not without some successes, the ability of the Ottoman state to have any effect on ethnic uprisings was seriously called into question. Reforms did not halt the rise of nationalism in the Danubian Principalities and Serbia, which had been semi-independent for almost 6 decades; in 1875 Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Wallachia and Moldova declared their independence from the Empire; and following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, independence was formally granted to Serbia, Romania and Montenegro, with the other Balkan territories remaining under Ottoman control.
Opening ceremony of the First Ottoman Parliament at the Dolmabahçe Palace in 1876The era of the empire's First Constitutional government (or Birinci Meşrûtiyet Devri in Turkish), was short-lived; however, the idea behind it (Ottomanism), proved influential. A wide-ranging group of reformers known as the Young Ottomans, primarily educated in Western universities, believed that a constitutional monarchy would provide an answer to the empire's growing social unrest. Through a military coup in 1876, they forced Sultan Abdülaziz (1861-1876) to abdicate in favour of Murad V. However, Murad V was mentally ill, and was deposed within a few months. His heir-apparent Abdülhamid II (1876-1909) was invited to assume power on the condition that he would accept to declare a constitutional monarchy, which he did on 23 November 1876. However, the subsequent constitution, called the Kanûn-ı Esâsî (meaning "Basic Law" in Ottoman Turkish), written by members of the Young Ottomans, survived for only two years.
Despite the empire's label as the "Sick man of Europe", from an economic perspective, the empire's actual weakness did not reside in its developing economy, but the cultural gap which separated it from the European powers. The empire's problems were, in fact, the result of an inability to deal with the new problems created by the conflict between external imperialism and rising internal nationalism. (See socioeconomics during the Ottoman reformation era.)
Dissolution (1908–1922)
Main article: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
Military &
Political History
Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
Time Span 14 years
# Sultans 2
Soc-Econ Reformation
See also
Public demonstration in the Sultanahmet district of Istanbul, 1908
The period of the Ottoman Empire's final dissolution began with the onset of the Second Constitutional Era (or İkinci Meşrûtiyet Devri in Turkish). This era is dominated by the Committee of Union and Progress (or İttihâd ve Terakkî Cemiyeti in Turkish) and the movement that would become known as the "Young Turks" (or Jön Türkler in Turkish). The Young Turk Revolution began on 3 July 1908 and quickly spread throughout the empire, resulting in the sultan's announcement of the restoration of the 1876 constitution and the reconvening of parliament. The constitutional era had a lapse between Countercoup (1909) and counter-revolution 31 March Incident that ended with the the sultan Abdulhamid II deposed and sent to exile in Selanik, and replaced by his brother Mehmed V Reşad.
The Balkan Wars of 1912-13, following the Italian occupation of Libya in 1911, were the first real test for the Committee of Union and Progress. The new Balkan states which were formed at the end of the 19th century sought additional territories from the Ottoman provinces of Albania, Macedonia, and Thrace, on the grounds of ethnic nationalism. Initially, with Russia acting as an intermediary, agreements were concluded between Serbia and Bulgaria in March 1912, and between Greece and Bulgaria in May 1912. Montenegro subsequently concluded agreements between Serbia and Bulgaria in October 1912. The Serbian-Bulgarian agreement specifically called for the partition of Macedonia, which was the chief casus belli of the First Balkan War. The main cause of the Second Balkan War was the disputes between the former Balkan allies over their newly gained territories; this then gave the Turks an opportunity to take back some of their lost territories in Thrace. The political repercussions of the Balkan Wars led to the coup of 1913, and the subsequent rule of the Three Pashas.
Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) at the trenches of Gallipoli (1915)
The Ottoman Empire took part in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I, under the terms of the Ottoman-German Alliance. The Ottomans managed to win important victories in the early years of the war, particularly at the Battle of Gallipoli and the Siege of Kut; but there were setbacks as well, such as the disastrous Caucasus Campaign against the Russians. The Russian Revolution of 1917 gave the Ottomans the opportunity to regain lost ground and Ottoman forces managed to take Azerbaijan in the final stages of the war, but the Empire was forced to cede these gains at the end of World War I. A significant event in this conflict was the creation of an Armenian resistance movement in the province of Van. The core Armenian resistance group formed an independent provisional government in May 1915, prompting the Ottoman government to accuse the Armenians of being in collaboration with the invading Russian forces in eastern Anatolia, against their native state. The Armenian militia and Armenian volunteer units were also part of this Armenian national liberation movement. At the end of 1917 the Armenian Revolutionary Federation formed the Democratic Republic of Armenia. The eventual Ottoman defeat came from a combination of coordinated attacks on strategic targets by British forces commanded by Edmund Allenby and the Arab Revolt of 1916-1918.
During the first World War, the Ottoman government also faced difficulties on the home front. There were isolated Armenian rebellions in eastern Anatolia that led to the April 24 circular and then the Tehcir Law deportations between June 1 1915 and February 8 1916. An estimated 1.5 million ethnic Armenians died during this period, which most academics refer to as the Armenian Genocide. Typically this is considered to be the first genocide of the 20th century and the second most studied case of genocide, after the Holocaust. Turkish authorities, however, do not believe the term genocide applies. The Turkish government does not believe that the Tehcir Law was the main contribution to Armenian deaths during the first World War. The claim that Teşkilat-ı Mahsusa or the Special Organization committed an organized crime against the Armenian people is also disputed, though the poor conditions of the Armenians (and other Christians in general) as well as some Muslims were not. In addition to any deliberate policy, fighting between Kurds and Armenians along with the Caucasus Campaign of the World War caused trouble for both the Armenian and Muslim populations of the region. The Turkish rejection of the genocide is widely viewed by western scholars as historical revisionism and is often compared to Holocaust denial. See the main Armenian Genocide article for more information on the dispute.
Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire happened in the aftermath of the WWI. The initial ceasefire agreement was the Armistice of Mudros; under the terms of the subsequent Treaty of Sèvres, the empire was to submit to a complete partition of its Middle Eastern territories under the mandates of Britain and France, cede the Turkish Mediterranean coast to Italy, the Turkish Aegean coast to Greece, cede the Turkish Straits and Sea of Marmara to the Allied powers as an international zone, and recognize a large Republic of Armenia in eastern Anatolia (in an area which was mostly inhabited by Turks and Kurds). The terms of this treaty were later superseded by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne. Britain obtained virtually everything it had sought under the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement it had made with France in 1916 for the partitioning of the Middle East. The other powers of the Triple Entente, however, soon became entangled in the Turkish War of Independence.
The Turkish War of Independence was a response to the actions of the victorious Allies, in particular the harsh terms of the peace settlement. Turkish nationalists organized a Turkish national movement under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk). The establishment of the Turkish national movement resulted in the creation of the Grand National Assembly (Büyük Millet Meclisi) in Ankara on 23 April 1920, which refused to recognize the Ottoman government in Istanbul and the invading forces in Turkey, raised a "people's army" and expelled the invading Greek, Italian and French forces. They took back the Turkish provinces which were given to the Republic of Armenia with the Treaty of Sèvres, and threatened the British forces controlling the Turkish Straits. Turkish revolutionaries eventually freed the Turkish Straits and Istanbul, and abolished the Ottoman sultanate on 1 November 1922. The last sultan, Mehmed VI Vahdettin (1918-1922), left the country on November 17, 1922, and the Republic of Turkey was officially declared with the Treaty of Lausanne on 29 October 1923. The Caliphate was constitutionally abolished several months later, on 3 March 1924. the Sultan and his family were declared persona non grata of Turkey and exiled. Fifty years later, in 1974, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey granted descendants of the former dynasty the right to acquire Turkish citizenship. Ertuğrul Osman V.
Ultimately, the fall of the Ottoman Empire can be attributed to the failure of its economic structure; the size of the empire created difficulties in economically integrating its diverse regions. Also, the empire's communication technology was not developed enough to reach all territories. In many ways, the circumstances surrounding the Ottoman Empire's fall closely paralleled those surrounding the fall of the Roman Empire, particularly in terms of the ongoing tensions between the empire's different ethnic groups, and the various governments' inability to deal with these tensions. In the case of the Ottomans, the introduction of a parliamentary system during the Tanzimat proved to be too late to reverse the trends that had been set in place. Economic HistoryMain article: Economic history of the Ottoman Empire
Economical History
of Ottoman Empire
Enlargement Era
Reformation Era
See also Capitulations
The economic structure of the Empire was defined by its geopolitical structure. The Ottoman Empire stood between the West and the East, thus blocking the land route eastward and forcing Spanish and Portuguese navigators to set sail in search of a new route to the Orient. The empire controlled the spice route that Marco Polo once used. When Christopher Columbus first journeyed to America in 1492, the Ottoman Empire was at its zenith; an economic power which extended over three continents. Modern Ottoman studies think that the change in relations between the Ottomans and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in significance of the land routes to the East (as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and Mediterranean) as parallelling the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself. StateMain article: State organisation of the Ottoman Empire
State organisation
of Ottoman Empire
House of Osman
Grand Vizier(1320-1922)
Divan (1586? - 1908)
Imperial Government (1908 - 1920)
See also Subdivisions
In diplomatic circles, the empire was often referred to as the "Sublime Porte", a literal translation of the Ottoman Turkish Bâb-ı Âlî, which was the only gate of the imperial Topkapı Palace that was open to foreigners, and was where the sultan greeted ambassadors.
Ottoman bureaucracyUnlike many states, the Ottoman Empire was happy to use the talents of Greeks (and other Christians), Muslims and Jews, in revolutionizing its administrative system. The rapidly expanding empire utilized loyal, skilled subjects to manage the empire, whether Phanariot Greeks, Armenians, Serbs, Bosniaks, Hungarians or others. This eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the empire, which was initially undertaken in the Greek language to the west, using the Greek subjects. Like the Byzantines before them, the Ottomans practiced a system in which the state had control over the clergy. The nomadic Turkic forms of land tenure were largely retained —with a number of unique adjustments— in the Ottoman period. Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic Iran continued to be important in Ottoman administrative circles. In the Ottoman judiciary, for example, the courts were run by Kadı, i.e. religious judges appointed by the sultan who exercised direct control over members of the religious establishment. Ultimately, the Ottoman administrative system was a blend of influences derived from the Turks, the Byzantines, and the Islamic world.
The Ottomans were primarily administrators and not producers, in the sense that the empire did not employ a program of economic exploitation (as did the colonial empires of the modern European states). Its economic outlook (fiscalism) stressed abundance and regulated prices within the marketplace to ensure social stability, and the state never developed a Western mercantile outlook of maximum production, leaving commerce very largely in the hands of the non-Muslim population. According to Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims and to ensure security and harmony within its borders within the overarching context of orthodox Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty.
House of Osman
Further information: Ottoman Dynasty, House of Osman
The Ottoman sultan, also known as the pâdişâh (or "lord of kings"), served as the empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control.
Throughout Ottoman history, however —despite the supreme de jure authority of the sultans and the occasional exercise of de facto authority by Grand Viziers— there were many instances in which local governors acted independently, and even in opposition to the ruler. On eleven occasions, the sultan was deposed because he was perceived by his enemies as a threat to the state. New sultans were always chosen from among the sons of the previous sultan, but there was a strong educational system in place that was geared towards eliminating the unfit and establishing support amongst the ruling elite for the son before he was actually crowned. There were only two attempts in the whole of Ottoman history to unseat the ruling Osmanlı dynasty, both failures, which is suggestive of a political system which for an extended period was able to manage its revolutions without unnecessary instability.
Imperial Harem
Main article: Imperial Harem
The Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. It was ruled by the Valide Sultan (also known as the Baş Kadın, or "Chief Lady"), mother of the reigning sultan, who held supreme power over the Harem and thus a powerful position in the court. On occasion, the Valide Sultan would become involved in state politics and through her influence could diminish the power and position of the sultan. For a period of time beginning in the 16th century and extending into the 17th, the women of the Harem effectively controlled the state in what was termed the "Sultanate of Women" (Kadınlar Saltanatı).
The harem had its own internal organization and order of formulating policies. Beneath the Valide Sultan in the hierarchy was the Haseki Sultan, the mother of the sultan's first-born son, who had the best chance of becoming the next Valide Sultan. The sultan also had four other official wives, who were each called Haseki Kadın. Next in rank below the sultan's wives were his eight favourite concubines (ikbâls or hâs odalıks), and then the other concubines whom the sultan favoured and who were termed gözde. Next in rank were the concubines of other court officials. Pupils (acemî) and novices (câriye or şâhgird) were younger women who were either waiting to be married off to someone or who had not yet graduated out of the Harem School.
Palace schools
The palace schools were where young male Christian slaves (devşirme), taken as tribute from conquered Christian lands, were trained. There were palace schools in the old palace in Edirne, one in the Galata Palace north of the Istanbul's Golden Horn, and one in Ibrahim Pasha Palace in the Hippodrome area of Istanbul. The boys would graduate from these schools after seven years, and were then ready to become servants to the sultan or other notables, to serve in the Six Divisions of Cavalry, or to serve as Janissaries. Some of the most talented devşirme would come to Topkapı Palace, where they were trained for high positions within the Ottoman court or military.
The Divan (Council)
Further information: Divan, Grand Vizier, Vizier
Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, he had a number of advisors and ministers. The most powerful of these were the viziers of the Divan, led by the Grand Vizier. The Divan was a council where the viziers met and debated the politics of the empire. It was the Grand Vizier's duty to inform the sultan of the opinion of the divan. The sultan often took his viziers' advice, but he by no means had to obey the Divan. The Divan consisted of three viziers in the 14th century; by the 17th century, the number had grown to eleven, four of whom served as Viziers of the Dome (the most important ministers after the Grand Vizier).
Imperial Government
Main article: Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire
Further information: Subdivisions of the Ottoman Empire, List of Ottoman Grand Viziers
Bâb-ı Âlî, the "Sublime Porte"
Though the state apparatus of the Ottoman Empire underwent many reforms during its long history, a number of its basic structures remained essentially the same. Chief among these was the primacy of the sultan. Despite important decisions usually being made by the Divan, ultimate authority always rested with the sultan.
The Divan, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a Beylik, was composed of the elders of the tribe. Its composition was later modified to include military officers and local elites (such as religious and political advisors). These individuals became known as viziers. Later still, beginning in the year 1320, a Grand Vizier (or Sadrazam) was appointed in order to assume certain of the sultan's responsibilities. The Sublime Porte, which became synonymous with the Ottoman government, was in fact the gate to the Grand Vizier's headquarters, and the place where the sultan formally greeted foreign ambassadors. At times throughout Ottoman history, the authority of the Grand Vizier was to equal (and on some occasions even surpass) that of the sultan.
After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy without executive powers, and a parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces.
At the height of its power, the Ottoman Empire contained 29 provinces, in addition to the tributary principalities of Moldavia, Transylvania, and Wallachia.
Insignia
Further information: Tughra, Ottoman Flag
The Tughra were calligraphic monograms, or signatures, of the Ottoman Sultans, of which there were 35. Carved on the Sultan's seal, they bore the names of the Sultan and his father. The prayer/statement “ever victorious” was also present in most. The earliest belonged to Orhan Gazi. The ornately stylized Tughra spawned a branch of Ottoman-Turkish calligraphy. SocietyMain article: Society structure of the Ottoman Empire
One of the successes of the Ottoman Empire was the unity that it brought about among its highly varied populations. While the main reason for this was the Empire's military strength and use of intimidation as a means of control in newly conquered territories, it may also be ascribed in part to the laws of Islam, which stated that Muslims, Christians, and Jews —who constituted the vast majority of the Ottoman population— were all related in that they were "People of the Book" (Ahl al-Kitâb). As early as the reign of Mehmed II, extensive rights were granted to Phanariot Greeks, and many Jews were invited to settle in Ottoman territory.
Concept of Nation
Main article: Millet (Ottoman Empire)
See also: Ottomanism
Under Ottoman rule the major religious groups were allowed to establish their own communities, called millets, each retaining its own religious laws, traditions, and language under the general protection of the sultan. Millets were led by religious chiefs, who served as secular as well as religious leaders and thus had a substantial interest in the continuation of Ottoman rule. After conquering Constantinople, Mehmed II used his army to restore its physical structure. Old buildings were repaired, streets, aqueducts, and bridges were constructed, sanitary facilities were modernised, and a vast supply system was established to provide for the city's inhabitants.
Ultimately, the Ottoman Empire's relatively high degree of tolerance for ethnic differences proved to be one of its greatest strengths in integrating the new regions until the rise of nationalism (this non-assimilative policy became a weakness during the dissolution of the empire that neither the first or second parliaments could successfully address).
"...the Ottoman family was ethnically Turkish in its origins, as were some of its supporters and subjects. But ... the dynasty immediately lost this "Turkish" ethnic identification through intermarriage with many different ethnicities. As for a "Turkish empire", state power relied on a similarly heterogeneous mix of peoples. The Ottoman empire succeeded because it incorporated the energies of the vastly varied peoples it encountered, quickly transcending its roots in the Turkish nomadic migrations from Central Asia into the Middle East."[2]
Slavery
Further information: Devshirmeh
The Ottomans came from a nomadic people among whom slavery was little practised. Also, from the Islamic perspective, the Qur'an specifically states "everyone is the same",[3] although in practice there were cultural differences in how this was interpreted (Islam and Slavery covers these perspectives). The Ottomans did not approve of slavery in their empire. However, Ottoman policies were based on a millet perspective in which each millet had the right to govern their own domain, so there were places in the Ottoman Empire where slavery existed. Trafficking in slaves was expressively forbidden by the Ottoman application of sharia, or Islamic law. For example, by the terms of the sharia, any slaves who were taken could not be kept as slaves if they converted to Islam. It was, in fact, considered an insult to term an Ottoman man as a slave-master, and there were incidents in which Ottomans responded unsympathetically to any who even mentioned the idea of slavery to them.[4]
Slavery was usually confined to domestic services, including odalıks. Many were captives of war and cross-border raids. In the Mediterranean, such enslaved captives manned the galley oars in the navy. By the era of Tanzimat, the Ottoman Empire aimed to gradually limit the scope of slavery. However, slavery was not formally abolished until the proclamation of the Republic.
The Devşirme system could be considered as a form of slavery, in that the Sultans had absolute power over its members. However, the 'slave' or kul (subject) of the Sultan had high status within Ottoman society, and this group included the highest officers of state and the military elite, all well remunerated, so to consider them 'slaves' (in the way the term is generally understood in the West) is misleading.
Rural slavery was largely a Caucasian phenomenon, carried to Anatolia and Rumelia after the Circassian migration in 1864. Conflicts emerged within the immigrant community and the Ottoman Establishment, at times, intervened on the side of the slaves.[5] CultureMain article: Culture of the Ottoman Empire
Further information: Ottoman poetry, Prose of the Ottoman Empire, Costumes of the Ottoman Empire
Istanbul ParkMany different cultures lived under the umbrella of the Ottoman Empire, and as a result, a specifically "Ottoman" culture can be difficult to define. To some extent, there existed a Turkish Ottoman culture, a Greek Ottoman culture, an Armenian Ottoman culture, and so on. However, there was also, to a great extent, a specific melding of cultures that can be said to have reached its highest levels among the Ottoman elite, who were composed of a myriad of different ethnic and religious groups.
One of the roots of Ottoman culture comes from the Oghuz Turks with their Central Asian Turkic nomadic culture. As the Oghuz passed into Anatolia through Persia over a period of a few hundred years they absorbed many elements of Persian culture. Following Sultan Mehmed II's capture of Constantinople (later named Istanbul) in 1453, many aspects of Byzantine— and, more broadly, European— culture began to be integrated into Ottoman culture. As the empire expanded in subsequent years, even more cultures were brought into this mix, enriching it still further.
This Ottoman multicultural perspective is reflected in their policies. One of the reasons that the Ottoman Empire lasted as long as it did was its tolerant attitude, originating from the Ottomans nomadic inheritance, in comparison to the attitude prevailing elsewhere in medieval times (east and west). This meant that the Ottoman State pursued multi-cultural and multi-religious policies. (Two examples of this can be seen in the Ottoman justice system and the independent regional governors.) As the Ottomans moved further west, the Ottoman leaders absorbed some of the culture of conquered regions. Intercultural marriages also played their part in creating the characteristic Ottoman elite culture. When compared to Turkish folk culture, the influence of these new cultures in creating the culture of the Ottoman elite is very apparent.
Architecture
Main article: Ottoman architecture
Architectural plan of in Thessaloniki dated 1444
Ottoman architecture was influenced by Seljuk, Persian, Byzantine, Greek and Islamic architecture, but came to develop a style all of its own. The years 1300-1453 (Rise Period) constitute the early or first Ottoman period, when Ottoman art was in search of new ideas. The years 1453-1600, known as the classical period, coinciding with the Empire's expansion, is the period when Ottoman art was at its most confident. During the years of the stagnation period, Ottoman architecture moved away from this style however. During the Tulip Era, it was under the influence of the highly ornamented styles of Western Europe; Baroque, Rococo, Empire and other styles intermingled.
The place of Turkish art within Islamic Art as a whole has long been a subject of controversy. In those regions in which Islamic Art developed it was founded on an already on an established basis of pre-Islamic civilization, the most important of these being the Late Antique and Christian cultures of Syria, and the Sasanian arts of Iran. The Arabic, Persian and Turkish elements added to these formed the basis of the development of Islamic Art. The majority of the states in the Islamic world were founded by the Turks and for nearly one thousand years, from the 9th century onwards the Turks, apart from some minor instances, remained the dominant element in the Islamic world.
The development of Turkish art was influenced by the arts of a number of different countries. The tomb of Ismail the Samanid at Bukhara dating from the first half the roth century played an important role, as a monument of revolutionary design derived from the Sasanian fire-temples, Karakhanid and Seljuk tomb design, and on top of this, the influence of the external appearance of Buddhist stupas. The plan of the Ghaznevid palaces is derived from the Sasanids, but also shows the influence of Abbasid palace architecture. Other architectural forms such as the iwan, the squinch and the dome are also forms derived from the Sasanids. But in spite of this, in all monuments of Turkish art, in whatever geographical region they may be, there is a distinctive style clearly separate from any of the styles which influenced it.
Concepts of Ottoman architecture mainly circle around the mosque. The mosque was integral to society, city planning and communal life. Besides the mosque, it is also possible to find good examples of Ottoman architecture in soup kitchens, theological schools, hospitals, Turkish baths and tombs.
Examples of Ottoman architecture of the classical period, aside from Istanbul and Edirne, can also be seen in Egypt, Eritrea, Tunisia, Algiers, the Balkans and Hungary, where mosques, bridges, fountains and schools were built.
Language
Main article: Ottoman Turkish language
See also: Turkish language
Ethnic groups with their own languages (e.g. Greeks, Jews-who often spoke Ladino, etc.) continued to speak them within their families and neighborhoods. In villages where two or more populations lived together, the inhabitants would often speak each other's language. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages, some Ottoman or Persian if they were educated, and some Arabic if they were Muslim. In the last two centuries, French and English emerged as popular languages. The elite learned French at school, and used European products as a fashion statement. The use of Turkish grew steadily under the Ottomans but they were still interested in their two other official languages so they kept them with a new limited usage: Persian for literature and Arabic solely for religious rites. Many famous Persian poets emerged at this time.
Ottoman Turkish was a variety of Turkish, highly influenced by Persian and Arabic. Ottomans had three influential languages; Turkish, Persian, Arabic but they did not have a parallel status. Throughout the vast Ottoman bureaucracy and, in particularly, within the Ottoman court in later times, a version of Turkish was spoken, albeit with a vast mixture of both Arabic and Persian grammar and vocabulary. If the basic grammar was still largely Turkish, the inclusion of virtually any word in Arabic or Persian in Ottoman made it a language which was essentially incomprehensible to any Ottoman subject who had not mastered Arabic, Persian or both. The two varieties of the language became so differentiated that ordinary people had to hire special "request-writers" (arzıhâlcis) in order to be able to communicate with the government.
Music
Main article: Ottoman classical music
Further information: Janissary Music, Roma music, Belly dance, Turkish folk music
As music was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite, a number of the Ottoman sultans were accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as Selim III, whose compositions are still frequently performed today. Due to a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music, and folk music.
Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of Byzantine music, Arabic music, and Persian music. Compositionally, it is organised around rhythmic units called usul, which are somewhat similar to meter in Western music, and melodic units called makam, which bear some resemblance to Western musical modes. The instruments used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the saz, the bağlama, the kemence), other Middle Eastern instruments (the ud, the tanbur, the kanun, the ney), and— later in the tradition— Western instruments (the violin and the piano).
In the provinces, several different kinds of Folk music were created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are: Balkan-Thracian Turkus, North-Eastern Turkus(Laz), Aegean Turkus, Central Anatolian Turkus, Eastern Anatolian Turkus, and Caucasian Turkus. There is no separate style for Istanbul, because Turkish Classical Music was preferred here.
Cuisine
Main article: Ottoman cuisine
When one talks of Ottoman cuisine, one refers to the cuisine of the Capital - Istanbul, and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that all the populations enjoyed. This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. The creations of the Ottoman Palace's kitchens filtered to the population, for instance through Ramadan events, and through the cooking at Yalis of Pashas, and from here on spread to the rest of the population. LifestyleMain article: Lifestyle of the Ottoman Empire
Galata Bridge in Istanbul, 1878The Ottoman court life in many aspects assembled ancient traditions of the Persian Shahs, but had many Greek and European influences.
The court (Topkapı)
Main article: Culture of the Ottoman court
Further information: Harem (household) and Topkapı Palace
The culture that evolved around the court was known as the Ottoman Way. To get a high position in the empire, one had to be skilled in the way. This included knowing the languages Persian, Arabic and Ottoman Turkish, and how to behave in different settings: in court, in front of the sultan, and on formal and religious occasions. The Ottoman Way also separated the nobles from the lower classes. Peasants and villagers were called Turks, while nobles were called Ottomans.
See also: Seraglio.
The provincial capitals
Apart from the Ottoman court, there were also large metropolitan centers where the Ottoman influence expressed itself with a diversity similar to metropolises of today: Sarajevo, Skopje, Thessaloniki, Dimashq, Baghdad, Beirut, Jerusalem, Makkah were other cities that had their own examples of Ottoman diversity, with their own small versions of Provincial Administration replicating the culture of the Ottoman court locally. ReligionFurther information: History of the Jews in Turkey, History of the Armenians in Ottoman Empire
Following the fall of Constantinople, in 1453, Mehmed II did not disband the Greek Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarchate, but instead brought it under close control by installing Gennadius II Scholarius as the patriarch—after receiving from him a hefty fee[6]—and thus establishing him as the ethnarch of the Millet of Rum; that is, the Orthodox Christian subjects of the empire, regardless of their ethnicity. Under the millet system—which applied to other non-Muslim religious groups as well—people were considered subjects, or rather raya (i.e. cattle), of the empire but were not subject to the Muslim faith or Muslim law. The Orthodox millet, for instance, was still officially legally subject to Justinian's Code, which had been in effect in the Byzantine Empire for 900 years. Also, as the largest group of non-Muslim subjects (or zimmi) of the Islamic Ottoman state, the Orthodox millet was granted a number of special privileges in the fields of politics and commerce{citation needed}, in addition to having to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects.
Similar millets were established for the Ottoman Jewish community, who were under the authority of the Haham Başı or Ottoman Chief Rabbi; the Armenian Orthodox community, who were under the authority of a head bishop; and a number of other religious communities as well.
Adoption of Islam
Further information: Ottoman Caliphate
Before adopting Islam—a process that was greatly facilitated by the Abbasid victory at the 751 AD Battle of Talas, which ensured Abbasid influence in Central Asia—the Turkic peoples practised a variety of shamanism. After this battle, many of the various Turkic tribes—including the Oghuz Turks, who were the ancestors of both the Seljuks and the Ottomans—gradually converted to Islam, and brought the religion with them to Anatolia beginning in the 11th century AD.
State and Religion
Main article: State and Religion (Ottoman Empire)
Largely for practical reasons, the Ottoman Empire was, in a broad sense, tolerant towards its non-Muslim subjects; it did not, for instance, forcibly convert them to Islam. The sultans took their primary duty to be service to the interests of the state, which could not survive without taxes and a strong administrative system. The state's relationship with the Greek Orthodox Church, for example, was largely peaceful, and the church's structure was kept intact and largely left alone but under close control and scrutiny until the Greek War of Independence of 1821–1831 and, later in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the rise of the Ottoman constitutional monarchy, which was driven to some extent by nationalistic currents, tried to be balanced with ottomanism. Other churches, like the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, were dissolved and placed under the jurisdiction of the Greek Orthodox Church. On the other hand, the empire often served as a refuge for the persecuted and exiled Jews of Europe; for example, following the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492, Sultan Beyazid II welcomed them into Ottoman lands. LawFurther information: Mecelle
An Ottoman trial, 1877 (see image detail for explanation)Legally, the Ottoman Empire was organised around a system of local jurisprudence; that is, local legal systems which did not conflict with the state as a whole were largely left alone. The Ottojon system had three court systems: one for Muslims, which was run by the kadıs, or Islamic judges; one for non-Muslims, involving appointed Jews and Christians ruling over their respective religious areas; and one which regulated trade and had its origins in the empire's capitulation agreements with foreign powers. The entire system was regulated from above by means of the administrative Kanun, i.e. laws.
These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive in nature: for instance, the Islamic courts—which were the empire's primary courts—could also be used to settle a trade conflict or disputes between litigants of differing religions, and Jews and Christians often went to them so as to obtain a more forceful ruling on an issue. Women nearly always choose the Islamic courts, as these courts tended to be fairer towards them and to give them more just recompense.
Throughout the theatre, there were two systems of law in effect: one was the Islamic Sharia law system, and the other was the Turkish Kanun system based upon the Turkic Yasa and Tore which was developed in the pre-Islamic era. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors. The Islamic Sharia law system had been developed from a combination of the Qur'ān; the Hadīth, or words of the prophet Muhammad; ijmā', or consensus of the members of the Muslim community; qiyas, a system of analogical reasoning from previous precedents; and local customs. The kanun law system, on the other hand, was the secular law of the sultan, and dealt with issues not clearly addressed by the sharia system. Both systems were taught at the empire's law schools, which were in Istanbul and Bursa. MilitaryMain article: Military of the Ottoman Empire
Further information: Sipahi, Akinci, Timariot, Janissary, Nizam-ı Cedid
The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. In the Ottoman army, light cavalry long formed the core and they were given fiefs called Tımars. Cavalry used bows and short swords and made use of nomad tactics similar to those of the Mongol Empire. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to employ muskets. The modernisation of the Ottoman empire in the 19th century started with the military. This was the first institution to hire foreign experts and which sent their officer corps for training in western European countries. Technology and new weapons were transferred to the empire, such as German and British guns, air force and a modern navy. References and further readingCleveland, William L. "The Ottoman and Safavid Empires: A New Imperial Synthesis" in A History of the Modern Middle East. Westview Press, 2004. pp. 37–56. ISBN 0-8133-4048-9.
Creasy, Sir Edward Shepherd. History of the Ottoman Turks: From the beginning of their empire to the present time. R. Bentley and Son, 1877.
Finkel, Caroline. Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923. John Murray, 2005. ISBN 0-7195-5513-2.
Guilmartin, John F., Jr. "Ideology and Conflict: The Wars of the Ottoman Empire, 1453–1606", Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 18, No. 4. (Spring, 1988), pp. 721–747.
Imber, Colin. The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. ISBN 0-333-61386-4.
Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans: Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. Cambridge University Press, 1983. ISBN 0-521-25249-0.
Lybyer, Albert Howe. The Government of the Ottoman Empire in the Time of Suleiman the Magnificent. AMS Press, 1978. ISBN 0-404-14681-3.
Mansel, Philip. Istanbul: City of the World's Desire, 1453–1924. Gardners Books, 1997. ISBN 0-14-026246-6.
McCarthy, Justin. The Ottoman Peoples and the End of Empire. Hodder Arnold, 2001. ISBN 0-340-70657-0.
Necipoğlu, Gülru. Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power: The Topkapi Palace in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. MIT Press, 1991. ISBN 0-262-14050-0.
Quataert, Donald. The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-54782-2.
Notes
1. ^ Other names of the Empire: “Âl-i Osman”; “Devlet-i Âliye”, “Devlet-i Ebed-Müddet”, “Memâlik-i Mahrûse” (The Well-Protected Domains), “Memâlik-i Mahrûse-i Osmanî”
2. ^ Donald Quataert, 2
3. ^ O mankind! We created you from a single soul, male and female, and made you into nations and tribes, so that you may come to know one another. Truly, the most honoured of you in God's sight is the greatest of you in piety. God is All-Knowing, All-Aware. -- 49:13
4. ^ The bulk of this section uses information from the article "Slavery in the Ottoman Empire".
5. ^ Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda Kölelik
6. ^ Mansel, 10
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